MICHAEL REICH语言图谱

中文译稿 · 工作坊 0.31.0

基本概念:定义与示例译稿

这里翻译的是176个现有条目的术语、定义、例子和反例,不是它们的完整深度档案。每条都可以展开英文原文,并返回原条目核对来源。本次已根据接受的原条目勘误核对英文来源;旧版中的语言异常保留在历史存档,不再作为当前英文定义展示。

“可译介”不等于“所有语用条件都相同”。英语句法和词汇的示例在需要时保留原句;译注说明适用范围。译文仍待母语专家审校。

AT-CORE-238-015 · 定义与示例译稿

语境Context

定义
使一段话语能够被理解的语言环境、具体情境和文化环境。
例子
“那可真是太棒了”既可能是真诚的赞扬,也可能是反讽式的批评。要判断哪种理解有根据,需要结合此前的失败、语调、交谈双方的关系以及接下来的回应。
反例与界限
如果分析者把所有出乎意料的观察都含糊地归因于“语境”,却既不指出具体因素,也不进行对照检验,那么这个无法界定的剩余范畴并不构成语境分析。

译注:例句是原条目示例的译文,不表示相同措辞在所有中文交际情境中都具有相同作用。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The linguistic, situational, and cultural environment in which an utterance becomes intelligible.

Example

“That is just wonderful” may express sincere praise or ironic criticism. Prior failure, prosody, relationship, and the next response are needed to justify one reading.

Counterexample

An analysis explains every unexpected observation vaguely through “context” without naming factors or testing comparisons. An indeterminate residual category is not contextual analysis.

AT-CORE-238-035 · 定义与示例译稿

定义Definition

定义
对一个术语的意义和适用范围所作的规定或说明。
例子
在一项研究中,“回应延迟”被定义为一个问题完全结束到下一话轮开始之间的时间;问题内部的停顿则被明确排除。
反例与界限
“共鸣就是会产生共鸣的东西”只是重复同一词根,既没有给出区分性特征,也没有提供可检验的使用规则,因此不是充分的定义。

译注:这里翻译的是定义的操作方式,并未新增一套术语标准。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The stipulation or explanation of a term’s meaning and scope.

Example

For a study, “response delay” is defined as the time between the complete end of a question and the start of the next turn; pauses within the question are explicitly excluded.

Counterexample

“Resonance is something that resonates” merely repeats the same lexical root and provides neither distinguishing features nor a testable rule of use; it is not an adequate definition.

AT-ADD-20261020-0128 · 定义与示例译稿

符号学Semiotics

定义
符号学研究符号、符号过程,以及意义和使用的条件。不同研究路径采用的符号概念和研究领域并不相同。符号学这门学科本身不是某一个符号过程,也不等同于某一种普遍适用的符号模型。
例子
一个虚构的路标场景:表示“火”的词语、火焰图示和树林上方的烟,都可能为行人提供指引,但它们与危险的可能关联并不相同。博物馆说明牌上的图示甚至可能根本不是警告;除了可辨认的形状,还需要考察具体语境。
反例与界限
因果作用并不自动等于意义,作出反应也不自动等于理解。一幅烟的图像不会仅仅因为像烟,就成为真实烟雾留下的物理踪迹。

译注:术语“符号学”用于译介本条目的研究范围;索绪尔、皮尔士等人的模型仍须分别说明,不能合并为一种理论。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Semiotics investigates signs, sign processes and conditions of meaning and use. Different approaches posit different sign concepts and domains. The discipline is not itself a single sign process, and it is not identical with one universal sign model.

Example

Invented path signs: The word fire, a flame pictogram and smoke above trees can each orient a walker. Their possible relation to danger differs. A pictogram on a museum label may not warn at all; the observed context matters alongside its recognisable shape.

Counterexample

A causal effect is not automatically meaning, and a response is not automatically understanding. A picture of smoke is not a physical smoke trace simply because it resembles one.

AT-CORE-244-012 · 定义与示例译稿

语义学Semantics

定义
研究意义、意义之间的关系以及语言表达如何得到解释的语言学分支。
例子
“所有来源都已核查”和“并非所有来源都已核查”的差异涉及否定的作用域。后一句允许存在尚未核查的来源,但并不必然断言所有来源都未核查。
反例与界限
两个人可以用同一句话追求不同目标,而这不意味着句子编码了不同的意义。交际中的意图需要与语义内容分开考察。

译注:例句保留原文关于否定作用域的对照;不据此概括全部汉语否定结构。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The branch of linguistics that studies meaning, relations among meanings, and the interpretation of linguistic expressions.

Example

“All sources were checked” and “Not all sources were checked” differ through the scope of negation. The latter permits unchecked sources but does not necessarily assert that none were checked.

Counterexample

Two people may pursue different goals with the same sentence without the sentence having different encoded meanings. Their pragmatic intentions must be examined separately from semantic content.

AT-CORE-239-060 · 定义与示例译稿

句法Syntax

定义
词语和短语组成句子时所依据的关系系统,以及对这些关系的描述。
例子
在英语原句“Only the researcher saw the bird with the binoculars”中,介词短语“with the binoculars”既可能修饰观看的行为,也可能修饰那只鸟;同一词序因而允许两种句法附着方式。
反例与界限
在书写中彼此相邻的词,并不因此就存在句法联系。不熟悉或不合规范的结构,也并不证明它完全没有可分析的结构。

译注:原例依赖英语介词短语的附着歧义,因此保留英语句子并用中文解释,没有把它改写成貌似相同的汉语歧义句。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The system and description of relations by which words and phrases form sentences.

Example

In “Only the researcher saw the bird with the binoculars,” the prepositional phrase may modify the seeing or the bird; one sequence thus opens two syntactic attachments.

Counterexample

A row of orthographically adjacent words is not thereby syntactically connected. Nor does an unfamiliar or non-standard construction prove that it lacks analysable structure altogether.

AT-PHI-W0311 · 定义与示例译稿

概念Concept

定义
由认知和语言组织起来、用于识别、区分并关联现象的单位。
例子
儿童起初接触到许多不同的坐具。借助“椅子”这个概念,他们把典型的形态与功能归在一起;但凳子、轮椅和艺术品又不断促使他们调整这一概念的边界。
反例与界限
一个没有分类或区分功能的孤立声音,并不是概念。两个社群使用可相互翻译的词语,也不能证明它们组织出了完全相同的概念。

译注:概念与词语的区分是原条目的论点;给出中文译名并不构成跨文化概念完全相同的证据。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A cognitively and linguistically organised unit used to recognise, distinguish, and relate phenomena.

Example

Children first encounter many separate things for sitting. Through the concept “chair” they group typical form and function, yet stools, wheelchairs, and art objects repeatedly force them to revise its boundary.

Counterexample

An isolated sound without an ordering or differentiating function is not a concept. Identical translated words also do not prove that two linguistic communities structure exactly the same concept.

AT-NAV-G01-023 · 定义与示例译稿

论证Argument

定义
论证把一个或多个前提与一个结论联系起来,并将这些前提作为支持该结论的理由。
例子
“我们应该更早开门:访客经常不到八点就开始等候,而我们希望减少等待。”一个观察和一个目标共同支持这项建议。
反例与界限
“我们八点开门,而且墙是蓝色的”如果没有进一步的联系,就不构成论证。加上“所以”一词也不能自动建立充分的支持关系。

译注:这里用“论证”翻译 argument,指前提—结论结构;下一条用“论证活动”翻译 argumentation,保留两个条目的区分。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An argument connects one or more premises to a conclusion they are offered to support.

Example

“We should open earlier: visitors regularly wait before eight, and we want to reduce waiting.” An observation and a goal jointly support a recommendation.

Counterexample

“We open at eight, and the wall is blue” is not an argument without a further connection. Adding “therefore” does not establish adequate support.

AT-CORE-238-032 · 定义与示例译稿

论证活动Argumentation

定义
把主张与理由联系起来,以争取有根据的认同。
例子
“这次测量更可靠,因为它用相同程序进行了独立重复。”这一理由要支持该主张,还需要一个关于重复测量可以减少偶然因素影响的推理依据。
反例与界限
重复一个主张并没有增加新的理由。情绪上的感染力或声望很高的来源,如果与争议问题没有相关联系,也不能因此构成有效的论证。

译注:译名用于区分论证活动与单个论证结构,不宣称中文“论证”的日常或学术用法只能按此划分。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The linking of claims and reasons in pursuit of justified assent.

Example

“The measurement is more reliable because it was independently repeated with the same procedure.” The reason supports the claim only with a warrant about repetition reducing accidental effects.

Counterexample

Repeating a claim does not supply an additional reason. Emotional force or a prestigious source likewise fails as argument when it has no relevant connection to the question under dispute.

AT-CORE-238-029 · 定义与示例译稿

类比Analogy

定义
一种结构上的对应关系:借助已知关系,对其他关系进行推理。
例子
教师把语法中的配价比作拼装玩具中已经占用和仍可连接的接口。这个模型能够显示组合的可能性,却不能说明相关词语的意义。
反例与界限
两个术语发音相似,却没有相应的关系结构。这种表面的相似既不是稳固的类比,也不是它们具有其他共同性质的证据。

译注:此处译介的是关系结构的对应,不直接把中国古典诗学中的“比”“兴”当作同一个理论概念。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A structural correspondence through which known relations guide reasoning about others.

Example

A teacher compares grammatical valency to occupied and unoccupied attachment points in a construction set. The model displays combinability but not the meanings of the words involved.

Counterexample

Two terms sound similar but exhibit no corresponding relational structure. Such surface resemblance is neither a robust analogy nor evidence that they share further properties.

AT-NAV-G01-021 · 定义与示例译稿

阐释Interpretation

定义
阐释借助语境和有根据的关联,确定一个表达、一篇文本或一个行动的意义。
例子
一次排练失败后,有人说“真精彩”。语调与情境可能支持反讽这一理解;缺少这些依据时,这种解读仍不确定。
反例与界限
凭空设想一种意图,却找不到文本依据,不是有充分根据的阐释。仅仅重复原话,同样不能确定它在具体情境中的意义。

译注:译文保留“有根据”和“不确定”的限制,没有把一种可能的反讽解读变成必然结论。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Interpretation establishes the meaning of an expression, text or action through context and defensible connections.

Example

After a failed rehearsal someone says, “That was brilliant.” Tone and situation may support irony; without them the reading remains uncertain.

Counterexample

An invented intention with no textual support is not a well-grounded interpretation. Merely repeating the words does not establish their situated meaning either.

AT-NAV-G05-050 · 定义与示例译稿

符号Sign

定义
符号是某种代表某物的事物,或是在表意过程中获得可解释的意义或功能的事物。
例子
在有交通规则的路口,红色信号可以表示“停止”;裙子上的同一种颜色却不会自动具有这一功能。
反例与界限
一个可见的痕迹,并不会脱离一切语境而拥有固定的符号意义。

译注:本条将 sign 译作“符号”。它与特定理论中的 symbol 不能仅因中文译名相近而被视为同一概念。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A sign is something that stands for something or acquires an interpretable meaning or function within a process of signification.

Example

A red signal at a regulated junction can indicate “stop”; the same colour on a dress does not automatically serve that function.

Counterexample

A visible trace does not have a fixed sign meaning independently of every context.

AT-SEM-0002 · 定义与示例译稿

多义Polysemy

定义
同一个词汇表达中并存着几个彼此相关的意义。
例子
英语原例“The child opened her mouth”和“the river mouth widened”中的 mouth,分别指人的嘴和河口。这两种读法可以区分,却彼此相关。语境通常会选定其中一种,而文字游戏可以有意让两种读法同时保持活跃。
反例与界限
如果形式相同,却无法说明其意义之间的联系,通常更适合分析为同形同音异义词,例如英语 bat 分别指蝙蝠和球棒。用语境使一个模糊意义更具体,并不必然建立了多义关系。

译注:mouth 和 bat 的例子依赖英语词汇,不能把中文“嘴/河口”或“蝙蝠/球棒”的译名差异当作同一种多义或同形关系。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The coexistence of several related meanings within one lexical expression.

Example

“The child opened her mouth” and “the river mouth widened” activate distinguishable but related readings. Context normally selects one, whereas wordplay can deliberately hold both together.

Counterexample

Identical forms without a defensible semantic connection are better analysed as homonyms, as with “bat” the animal and “bat” the implement. Contextual specification of one vague meaning does not necessarily establish polysemy.

AT-PRA-0002 · 定义与示例译稿

会话含意Implicature

定义
由话语传达、却没有被明确说出的意义。
例子
被问到一份报告是否有说服力时,同事回答:“排版做得很仔细。”对内容评价的明显缺席,暗示了批评,却没有直接断言这种批评。
反例与界限
“有些申请——其实是所有申请——都已审查”取消了通常的标量含意。语义上的蕴涵不能用同样方式撤回:“他是单身汉,但他已婚”与词汇意义发生冲突。这里的英语原词 bachelor 取“未婚男子”这一词义。

译注:保留原例的可取消性对照,并标明 bachelor 的具体词义;不据此推断所有中文语境都有同样的含意。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Meaning conveyed by an utterance without being explicitly stated.

Example

Asked whether a report is convincing, a colleague replies, “The typography is very careful.” The conspicuous omission of an assessment of the content suggests criticism without asserting it.

Counterexample

“Some, indeed all, applications have been reviewed” cancels the usual scalar implicature. A semantic entailment cannot be withdrawn in the same way: “He is a bachelor but is married” conflicts with lexical meaning.

AT-PRA-0003 · 定义与示例译稿

预设Presupposition

定义
一段话语中被当作已经给定的背景信息。
例子
“约纳斯也读过这份报告”断言约纳斯读过报告,同时把至少还有一个读者当作已知背景。回应者可以恰好否定这一背景假定。
反例与界限
“玛拉不吸烟”直接断言她不吸烟,并不预设她以前吸过烟。因此,不能把由常识补出的每一种推断都当作由语言触发的预设。

译注:这里保留 also/“也”的分析示例,中文触发条件的完整研究仍需另行进行。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Background information treated as already given by an utterance.

Example

“Jonas also read the report” asserts Jonas's reading while treating at least one other reader as given. A response can reject precisely that background assumption.

Counterexample

“Mara does not smoke” directly asserts non-smoking and does not presuppose that she smoked before. Not every inference supplied by world knowledge is therefore a linguistically triggered presupposition.

AT-PRA-0005 · 定义与示例译稿

言语行为Speech act

定义
通过说话实施的行动,例如承诺、请求、命名、警告或宣告。
例子
“我保证明天把报告发出去”不只是描述一次未来的发送。在适当条件下,说话者由此对听话者承担了一项义务。
反例与界限
鹦鹉可以重复“我保证”,却不因此作出承诺。同样,一个没有相应权限的人,也不能仅凭使用适当的措辞就任命某人担任公职;措辞本身不能保证言语行为成功。

译注:承诺与任命的成立条件依赖交际和制度环境,译文并未认定这些条件在各文化中完全相同。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An action performed in speaking, such as promising, requesting, naming, warning, or declaring.

Example

“I promise to send the report tomorrow” does not merely describe a future transmission. Under appropriate conditions, the speaker undertakes an obligation toward an addressee.

Counterexample

A parrot may repeat “I promise” without undertaking a promise. Likewise, an unauthorised person cannot appoint someone to office merely by using the appropriate formula; wording alone does not secure a successful speech act.

AT-NAV-G02-019 · 定义与示例译稿

意义Meaning

定义
这里用“意义”这一概念,梳理对语言意义的不同解释。
例子
一个构造的例子:米拉和莱昂各自说“我在这里”。表达形式相同,但它的所指会随说话者和地点而改变。
反例与界限
两个表达可以指向同一个对象,同时传达不同的信息。

译注:此译名对应 Atlas 的导向性条目,不把意义的所有哲学和语言学理论合并为一种解释。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Meaning here is an orientation concept for different explanations of linguistic sense.

Example

Constructed: When Mira and Leon each say “I am here”, the expressions remain the same while their reference changes with speaker and place.

Counterexample

Two expressions can refer to the same object while conveying different information.

AT-SEMIO-W0269 · 定义与示例译稿

符号过程Semiosis

定义
某种事物作为符号发挥作用,并引发进一步解释的过程。
例子
实验室门上的一张红纸被理解为警告;这个警告促使人寻找危险告示,而告示上的符号又引出某种具体的防护行动。
反例与界限
如果没有任何人或实践把某种物理刺激当作符号来对待,这种刺激本身就不构成符号过程。同样,当语境和符号关系不支持某种联想时,也不能把每一种联想都算作充分的解释。

译注:用符号过程译介semiosis,以区别于符号这一关系性要素及符号学这一学科。此处不宣称所有符号学理论都采用同一模型。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The process through which something functions as a sign and generates further interpretation.

Example

A red sheet on a laboratory door is understood as a warning; the warning prompts a search for a hazard notice whose symbol then elicits a particular protective action.

Counterexample

A physical stimulus is not semiosis when nothing treats it as a sign. Nor is every association an adequate interpretation when context and the sign relation resist it.

AT-NAV-G04-042 · 定义与示例译稿

指称Reference

定义
本条所说的指称,涉及语言表达在使用中指向某种对象的关系。
例子
两个人先后说“我累了”。代词“我”遵循同一条语言规则,却在每次发话中分别指向不同的说话者。
反例与界限
理解一个名字,并不能保证现实中有一个与之对应的对象;虚构名字需要进一步的理论说明。

译注:指称不是对象本身。这里保留原条目的使用层面限定,不把它自动等同于外延、内涵或词典释义。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Reference here concerns the relationship through which linguistic expressions in use are directed towards something.

Example

Two people successively say “I am tired”. The pronoun “I” follows the same linguistic rule but refers to a different speaker on each occasion.

Counterexample

Understanding a name does not guarantee a corresponding real object; fictional names require additional theoretical clarification.

AT-SEM-W0116 · 定义与示例译稿

指称性意义(denotation)Denotation

定义
按约定与一个表达相联系、较为直接的指称性或描述性内容。
例子
“狗”与一个带贬义的口语称呼,可以在同一情境中指向同一只动物,而两者的附加意义与社会效果却明显不同。
反例与界限
“这里”在每次使用中并不都指示同一地点,其指向需要由发话情境确定。词典对邻近位置的说明,不等于它在当下使用中的全部denotation。

译注:denotation在不同语义理论中可作不同处理;外延、指称与描述性内容不能无条件互换。本译名保留英文术语并提示范围,母语专业审校时需进一步统一术语。原条目的定义本身较宽,本轮不把它缩成单一理论公式。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The more direct referential or descriptive content conventionally associated with an expression.

Example

“Dog” and a disparaging colloquial label may refer to the same animal in a situation while differing sharply in connotation and social effect.

Counterexample

The word “here” does not denote the same place in every use but receives a referent from the utterance situation. A dictionary note about proximity is not its complete current denotation.

AT-SEM-0004 · 定义与示例译稿

附加意义(connotation)Connotation

定义
与较直接的指称相伴的评价性、情感性或文化性关联意义。
例子
英语residence、lodging和home可以涉及同一个地方,但在许多语境中分别唤起不同程度的中性描述、临时居住感与情感归属。
反例与界限
某位交谈者把一个词与只有自己知道的假期记忆联系起来。如果没有共享用法的进一步证据,这种私人联想就不能算作已经确立的附加意义。

译注:保留三个英语词,不用住所、住处、家强行复制一套相同分布。附加意义也不等于逻辑上的内涵,或单纯属于某个人的联想。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Associated evaluative, emotional, or cultural meaning carried alongside a more direct designation.

Example

“Residence”, “lodging”, and “home” may concern the same place while evoking different degrees of neutrality, temporariness, and emotional belonging in many contexts.

Counterexample

One participant associates a word with a private holiday memory unknown to anyone else. Without further evidence of shared use, this individual association is not an established connotation.

AT-SEM-W0113 · 定义与示例译稿

歧义Ambiguity

定义
一个表达允许多种由结构或词汇依据所支持的解释。
例子
英语“I saw the man with the telescope”中的with the telescope可以说明看的工具,也可以描述被看见的男子:看的人使用望远镜,或者那名男子带着望远镜。句子本身没有固定这一附着关系。
反例与界限
“Paul is tall”在没有比较类别时是模糊的,但不一定表达tall的多个可分立词义。相较之下,“I saw the man with the telescope”允许两种不同的句法附着方式。

译注:修订稿采用明确解释两种句法附着的望远镜例。英语原句保留为分析对象,不把中文释义当作同一结构的证据;原教授/书/译者例的审校记录保存在旧版本中。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The availability of more than one structurally or lexically supported interpretation.

Example

“I saw the man with the telescope.” The prepositional phrase can specify the instrument used for seeing or describe the observed man: I used the telescope, or the man had it with him. The sentence alone does not fix the attachment.

Counterexample

“Paul is tall” is vague without a comparison class but need not express several discrete meanings of “tall”. “I saw the man with the telescope”, by contrast, permits two structurally distinct attachments.

AT-134-008 · 定义与示例译稿

模糊性Vagueness

定义
一个表达既有明确适用的情况,也有边界情况,而其适用范围又没有完全清晰的界线。
例子
在某个群体中,一个人算不算高,取决于比较类别与目的。除非语境规定了有约束力的阈值,否则知道精确身高也不能自动消除边界情况。
反例与界限
缺少测量数据的情境不一定具有模糊性。如果已经规定了确定阈值,不知道结果的问题可以通过测量解决;真正的模糊性涉及类别边界本身。

译注:以模糊性区别于多种可分立读法的歧义,也区别于尚未获得事实数据的不确定。译名不宣称所有学科都用同一套边界理论。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The property of an expression to have clear cases and borderline cases without completely sharp boundaries of application.

Example

Whether a person counts as tall for a particular group depends on comparison class and purpose. Exact height does not eliminate the borderline case unless the context supplies a binding threshold.

Counterexample

A situation is not necessarily vague when measurement data are missing. If a definite threshold has been stipulated, ignorance can be resolved by measurement; genuine vagueness concerns the category boundary itself.

AT-SEM-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

同形同音异义(homonymy)Homonymy

定义
形式相同而意义不相关的表达之间的关系。
例子
英语“She waited by the bank”可以说她在银行建筑旁等候,也可以说她在河岸边等候。需要进一步语境,才能判断共同形式bank激活了哪一条词汇意义路径。
反例与界限
central bank和local bank中的bank,只是对同一个机构意义作出不同限定。具体所指对象不同,本身不足以构成homonymy。

译注:保留英语bank的形式与义项。中文同音词、同形词的划分另有自己的条件;本条不把仅同字形而读音不同的例子冒充完全同音例。译名用于提示本例的同形同音条件,不替所有文献固定homonymy的分类范围。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The relation between expressions of identical form but unrelated meanings.

Example

“She waited by the bank” can identify a financial building or the side of a river. Further context must decide which lexical path the shared form activates.

Counterexample

“Bank” in “central bank” and “local bank” merely specifies one institutional meaning. Difference between individual referents does not by itself establish homonymy.

AT-CORE-238-025 · 定义与示例译稿

同义关系Synonymy

定义
表达之间意义上的相近关系;它们的使用条件很少完全相同。
例子
在英语“The meeting begins at nine”中,begins换成starts,变化很小;在begin a new life中,start仍可使用,但会呈现略有不同的风格特征。
反例与界限
dog和animal可以在某一情境中指向同一只动物,但animal是上位词,不能在所有语境中都用dog替换。所指相同并不等于同义。

译注:保留begin/start的英语搭配对照,不因中文都可能译为开始,就假定两个英语词的分布完全相同。原例的细微风格判断仍依赖具体语境。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Similarity of meaning between expressions whose conditions of use are rarely identical.

Example

In “The meeting begins at nine,” begins can be replaced by starts with little change; in “begin a new life,” start remains possible but produces a somewhat different stylistic profile.

Counterexample

Dog and animal may refer to the same creature in a situation, but animal is a superordinate term and cannot be replaced by dog in every context. Shared reference alone is not synonymy.

AT-SEM-W0114 · 定义与示例译稿

反义关系Antonymy

定义
表达通过对立来组织某个意义维度的词汇关系。
例子
安静与响亮组织出一个可分级的音量维度:一种声音可以比另一种更安静,也可以处于中间位置,而不必达到绝对互补的两端。
反例与界限
热与圆可以从不同方面描述同一个对象,但在这里它们不构成反义词,因为温度与形状没有形成共同的对立尺度或反向角色关系。

译注:原条目用quiet/loud说明程度对立。安静/响亮在此仅译介该例的音量语境,不声称两个中文词在所有用法中构成一一对应的反义体系。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A lexical relation in which expressions organise a semantic dimension through opposition.

Example

“Quiet” and “loud” organise a gradable dimension of volume: one sound can be quieter than another and occupy intermediate positions without reaching an absolute complement.

Counterexample

“Hot” and “round” may both describe the same object differently, but they are not antonyms because temperature and shape form no shared opposition scale or reversed role relation here.

AT-W3-0417 · 定义与示例译稿

同音关系Homophony

定义
意义或拼写不同的词或形式,在语音上相同的关系。
例子
英语“The knight came at night”中,knight与night在许多英语变体里读音相同;语法与语境使它们分别获得不同的词汇解释。
反例与界限
house与mouse听起来相近,却不同音,因为起始辅音不同。两个读音不同而意思相近的词,体现的是同义关系,而不是同音关系。

译注:保留knight/night和house/mouse,不造一组貌似对应的中文同音词。中文语料还应明确是否要求声调相同,以及所讨论的语言变体。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The phonetic identity of different words or forms that have distinct meanings or spellings.

Example

In the sentence “The knight came at night,” knight and night are acoustically identical in many English varieties; grammar and context assign their distinct lexical meanings.

Counterexample

House and mouse sound similar but are not homophones because their initial consonants differ. Two differently sounding words with similar meanings exemplify synonymy rather than homophony.

AT-CORE-238-004 · 定义与示例译稿

知识框架(frame)Frame

定义
一种知识组织框架,它决定某个术语会激活哪些角色、关系与预期。
例子
“医院让患者出院”激活了一个机构、一位接受治疗的人和先前的住院经历;“患者回家了”则借助另一种知识结构来呈现同一个过渡。
反例与界限
如果没有反复出现的角色或有组织的情境,仅有松散联想是不够的。frame也不等同于framing,后者涉及对框架的策略性选择或呈现。

译注:用知识框架区别于下一条的框架化呈现;同一个中文框架可承担不同理论用途,译名不能代替理论范围说明。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A knowledge frame that determines which roles, relations, and expectations a term activates.

Example

“The hospital discharged the patient” activates an institution, a treated person, and a preceding stay. “The patient returned home” presents the same transition through a different knowledge structure.

Counterexample

A loose association with no recurrent roles or organised scenario is insufficient. A frame is also not identical with framing, the strategic selection or presentation of a frame.

AT-ARG-0002 · 定义与示例译稿

框架化呈现(framing)Framing

定义
通过某种视角来组织信息,使一些解释凸显,而另一些解释退居背景。
例子
同一份候诊名单可以被描述为“按紧迫程度安排就诊”,也可以被描述为“获得诊疗的障碍”。前一种说法突出分配,后一种说法突出排除及其后果。
反例与界限
“税率下降两个百分点”减少了评价性的框架化呈现,却不是毫无预设的表达。一次偶然的措辞选择,如果对角色、相关性或推论没有稳定作用,也不足以构成有分析价值的framing。

译注:保留frame作为知识组织与framing作为选择、呈现活动的区分。描述差异不自动证明谁怀有操纵意图,也不等于已经测量了读者效果。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The organisation of information through a perspective that foregrounds some interpretations and suppresses others.

Example

The same waiting list may be described as “access ordered by urgency” or as a “barrier to care”. The first foregrounds allocation; the second foregrounds exclusion and its consequences.

Counterexample

“The tax rate falls by two percentage points” reduces evaluative framing but is not assumption-free. A chance wording choice with no stable effect on roles, relevance, or inference would not constitute analytically productive framing.

AT-W3-0411 · 定义与示例译稿

视角Perspective

定义
依赖观察立场而形成的感知和表述对象的方式。
例子
“边境保护国家”与“边境使家庭分离”讨论的是同一种制度,却从受到不同影响的立场来组织对它的认识。
反例与界限
如果一个偶然的观看方向既不改变选择,也不改变组织或解释,它还不足以构成分析上有意义的视角。依赖立场本身,也不意味着无法进行客观检验。

译注:视角不等于任意的个人意见;也不自动等同于指示、知识框架或叙事聚焦。例句是原条目的对照,不是本轮新增的政治事实判断。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The viewpoint-dependent way of perceiving and representing an object.

Example

“The border protects the country” and “The border separates families” concern the same institution but organise its perception from different affected positions.

Counterexample

A chance viewing direction that changes neither selection, organisation, nor interpretation is not yet an analytically relevant perspective. Standpoint-dependence also does not by itself rule out objective testing.

AT-PRA-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

指示(deixis)Deixis

定义
一种需要依据说话者、地点、时间或话语位置才能解释的指称。
例子
星期一,一位旅客在站台上对同伴说:“我明天在这里和你见面。”只有结合他们共同处于的情境,才能确定说的是谁、哪一天、哪个地点。
反例与界限
“玛丽亚8月20日到柏林”大体可以在不知道发话地点和时间的情况下理解;“我明天在这里和你见面”则不能。

译注:这里的指示是deixis,不是命令、说明书或一般性指向。原例突出人称、时间与空间参数;更复杂的篇章指示须另作说明。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Reference whose interpretation depends on speaker, place, time, or discourse position.

Example

On a railway platform on Monday, a traveller tells her companion, “I will meet you here tomorrow.” Person, day, and place can be recovered only from their shared situation.

Counterexample

“Maria arrives in Berlin on 20 August” can largely be resolved without knowing the place and time of utterance. “I will meet you here tomorrow” cannot.

AT-091-055 · 定义与示例译稿

情态Modality

定义
语言对可能性、必要性、义务或评估所作的表达。
例子
英语“The door must be open”既可表达根据可见光线作出的认识性推断,也可表达规范性的要求;相关的可能情形范围需要由语境确定。
反例与界限
“昨天下雨了”把事件置于过去,本身却不对可能性或必要性作出评估。时态本身并不等于情态。

译注:保留英语must的原例,不把它不加说明地换成单一中文必须。义务性与认识性情态在中文里的表达形式及分布,需要分别检验。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Linguistic expression of possibility, necessity, obligation, or assessment.

Example

“The door must be open” may express an epistemic inference from visible light or a deontic instruction; context determines the relevant space of alternatives.

Counterexample

The sentence “It rained yesterday” locates an event in the past but by itself evaluates neither possibility nor necessity. Tense alone is not modality.

AT-091-056 · 定义与示例译稿

语域Register

定义
一种与使用情境相关、具有典型语言形式和使用规范的语言变体。
例子
同一项请求,在短消息里可以是“能把那个发来吗?”,在行政信函里可以是“请提供所需文件”。角色与预期情境改变了措辞。 研究者午餐时用随意的话讨论一个技术难题,随后在正式报告里记录结果。这里不仅涉及正式程度,也涉及读者、持久记录与责任。原例旨在展示可能的语域差异,不把随意表达视为知识较少的表现。
反例与界限
方言主要按地域或社会群体分布,而不只与某项活动相关。如果更广泛的语言组织和使用情境没有变化,仅有一个孤立的专业词也不足以建立一种语域。

译注:例句为原例的中文译介,不代表对现实中文公文或学术交流作过语料调查。语域不能简化为高雅/低俗等级,也不与方言、个人文风完全重合。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A situation-dependent variety with typical linguistic forms and norms of usage.

Example

The same request appears in a message as “Can you send that over?” and in an administrative letter as “Please provide the requested documentation.” Role and expected situation reshape the wording. Researchers discuss a technical difficulty using casual phrasing at lunch, then document the result in a formal report. The contrast involves audience, permanence and accountability as well as formality. The example illustrates possible register differences without treating casual speech as less knowledgeable. Original added example.

Counterexample

A dialect is primarily regionally or socially distributed rather than tied only to an activity. An isolated technical word does not establish a register when the wider linguistic design and situation of use remain unchanged.

AT-RHE-0002 · 定义与示例译稿

隐喻Metaphor

定义
一种转换:借助一个经验领域,使另一个经验领域变得可以理解。
例子
“这个异议打破了辩论的框架。”空间性的框架模型组织着:哪些内容算作辩论内部的相关问题,哪些被放在外部。
反例与界限
如果实际称量一本纸质书,“这本印刷书重500克”可以是字面的重量陈述。一个表达是否被用作隐喻,要结合语境中的意义判断;用法常规化本身,并不排除隐喻。

译注:修订稿用实际称量的情境说明字面用法,不再把The idea arose当作无争议的非隐喻例。语言中的隐喻与说话者是否有意唤起某一形象,需要分开分析;隐喻也不与古典诗学中的比、兴直接合并。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A transfer that makes one domain of experience intelligible through another.

Example

“This objection breaks the frame of the debate.” The spatial model of a frame organises what counts as relevant inside the debate and what is placed outside it.

Counterexample

“This printed book weighs 500 grams” can state a literal result when the book is actually weighed. Whether an expression is used metaphorically must be assessed through its meaning in context; conventional use alone does not exclude metaphor.

AT-091-004 · 定义与示例译稿

转喻Metonymy

定义
用一个在概念上与某对象相联系的概念来称说该对象。
例子
英语“The White House announced …”(白宫宣布……)既不是让建筑开口说话,也不只是提到一个地理地点。通过所在地,一个机构及获授权的行动者变得可以被指称。
反例与界限
“山脚”通常通过形状或位置的相似关系作隐喻理解。如果没有已经建立的邻接联系,而必须构造跨领域的相似,那么主要按转喻来分析就不够有说服力。

译注:转喻是本条对metonymy的译名;与借代等中文传统术语的范围并不预先视为完全相同。保留原例中的机构及授权条件,不将所有以地点称人都归为同一种情况。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The naming of an object using a concept that is conceptually related to it.

Example

“The White House announced …” presents neither a speaking building nor merely a geographical place. An institution and its authorised actors become accessible through their location.

Counterexample

“The foot of the mountain” is normally understood metaphorically through similarity of form or position. If no established contiguity exists and a resemblance across domains must be constructed, a primarily metonymic analysis is less plausible.

AT-RHE-0005 · 定义与示例译稿

反讽Irony

定义
一种话语:它意在表达的立场与字面措辞之间存在可被识别的偏离。
例子
一个不可靠的系统第三次失灵后,工程师说:“这可真靠得住。”正面的评价被展示出来,使交谈双方能共同识别它的不合适。
反例与界限
阳光明媚时说“真是野餐的好天气”,可以只是普通的正面评价。一个说法不会仅仅因为不真实就成为反讽;还须能识别出对所展示措辞的某种立场。

译注:反讽不只是把一句话机械地取反,也不自动等同于讽刺或挖苦。此处翻译原条目的立场标准,不把构造例句当作中文语用效果的实证研究。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An utterance whose intended stance diverges recognisably from its literal wording.

Example

After the third failure of an unreliable system, an engineer says, “You can really depend on it.” The positive assessment is displayed so that its inadequacy can be jointly recognised.

Counterexample

In sunshine, “Perfect picnic weather” is an ordinary positive assessment. A false utterance is not ironic merely because it is false; a recognisable stance towards the displayed wording must also be present.

AT-091-005 · 定义与示例译稿

拟人Personification

定义
赋予非人实体以人的特征或行动来表现它们。
例子
一首诗让记忆在夜里敲门、耐心等候,又向说话者低声说出一个她长久回避的名字。
反例与界限
“火车八点出发”让技术物成为语法主语,并描述普通的运动。如果没有人的特征或人格化的能动性,就不构成拟人。

译注:语法主语不等于有意识的行动者。拟人的译名也不抹去personification与anthropomorphism在具体研究中的范围差异。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The representation of non-human entities with human characteristics or actions.

Example

A poem has memory knock at the door at night, wait patiently, and whisper to the speaker a name she has long avoided.

Counterexample

“The train leaves at eight” gives a technical object grammatical subjecthood and ordinary motion. Without a human property or personal agency, it is not personification.

AT-CORE-238-027 · 定义与示例译稿

比较Comparison

定义
基于被突出的一点相似性,在两个领域之间建立明确的关系。
例子
研究者只就标示说话者更替这一功能比较两个词,同时明确保留它们在历史和形式上的差异。
反例与界限
两个术语只是按字母顺序相邻排列,却没有指明共同的比较方面。这是相邻,不是比较;只说它们在某种意义上相像,同样不够。

译注:此处译作比较,保留原条目较广的方法论范围,并不把comparison一律窄化为明喻。相似之处需要说明,差异不因此消失。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An explicit relation between two domains based on a highlighted similarity.

Example

A researcher compares two words only with respect to their function in marking speaker change. Their histories and forms remain explicitly different.

Counterexample

Two terms occur next to one another alphabetically without a specified common respect. This is adjacency, not comparison; saying that they are somehow similar is likewise insufficient.

AT-091-001 · 定义与示例译稿

夸张Hyperbole

定义
为强化某种印象而有意作出的夸大。
例子
“这支队伍长得没完没了”超出了队伍的实际长度,却传达了等待的主观时长与不耐烦。听者不必因此设想一个数学上无限的序列。
反例与界限
如果说的确实是三次发话,“我说了三遍”就不是夸张。一个错误数字,不会仅因有利于说话者,或后来被称为夸大,就变成修辞表达。

译注:保留原例中实际数量与经验强度的区分,不把所有不准确陈述都视为可以免责的修辞。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Deliberate exaggeration to intensify an impression.

Example

“This queue is endless” exceeds its actual length but communicates experienced duration and impatience. No listener needs to posit a mathematically infinite sequence.

Counterexample

“I said it three times” is not hyperbole when exactly three utterances are intended. A false number does not become figurative merely because it benefits its speaker or is later called an exaggeration.

AT-091-002 · 定义与示例译稿

否定反面式强调(litotes)Litotes

定义
通过否定相反的说法来形成强调。
例子
审阅一项复杂方案后,评审说:“这并非不明智。”排除负面评价,使肯定成为可能,同时保留审慎的评价距离。
反例与界限
如果没有产生间接评价或强调,对反面命题作逻辑否定并不自动成为litotes。“并非不可能”依语境也许只表示很小的可能性,而不是强烈的确信。

译注:采用解释性中文标题并保留litotes,避免把它与一切双重否定、不充分陈述或中文反语混为一谈。译名仍待母语专业审校。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Emphasis achieved by negating the opposite.

Example

After examining a demanding solution, a reviewer says, “That is not unwise.” The rejected criticism permits recognition while maintaining a cautiously evaluative distance.

Counterexample

Logical negation of an opposite is not automatically rhetorical litotes when no indirect evaluation or emphasis arises. Depending on context, “not impossible” may indicate only slight possibility rather than strong confidence.

AT-RES6B-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

委婉语Euphemism

定义
对某事采用缓和或遮掩的表达,因为直接名称被认为刺耳、令人难堪或不受欢迎。
例子
员工失去工作时,机构称之为“人员调整”。这一说法缓和了机构的语气,却可能遮蔽被解雇者承受的严重后果。
反例与界限
一个更精确的专业词,并不自动是委婉语。表达仅仅陌生,却没有涉及负面评价或社会性回避时,也不能据此认定发生了缓和。

译注:译文保留原例的批判可能性,但不把委婉一律等同于欺骗;礼貌、照顾感受与遮掩事实需要按具体语境区分。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A mitigating or veiling expression for something whose direct name is felt to be harsh, embarrassing or undesirable.

Example

An organisation speaks of “workforce adjustment” when employees lose their jobs. The expression softens the institutional tone but may conceal the personal severity of dismissal.

Counterexample

A more precise technical term is not automatically euphemistic. Nor does mitigation occur when an expression is merely unfamiliar without addressing negative evaluation or social avoidance.

AT-METZ2-0013 · 定义与示例译稿

贬抑性称说(dysphemism)Dysphemism

定义
有意用贬低、粗厉或冒犯性的说法称说某个对象或某个人。
例子
一则评论把仔细的修订称作“东拼西凑”,目的不是描述方法,而是在审查之前就把整个结果框定为低劣。
反例与界限
某个医学术语对非专业听众显得陌生,但在相应语境中中性而准确。仅有陌生感或不适,不足以让一个表达成为贬抑性称说。

译注:用解释性标题保留与委婉语的对照,不把dysphemism简单译成一切脏话。是否贬抑须结合说法的使用及评价作用。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A deliberately disparaging, harsh or offensive designation of a subject or person.

Example

A comment calls a careful revision “patchwork”, not to describe the method but to frame the entire result as inferior before it is examined.

Counterexample

A medical technical term sounds unfamiliar to a lay audience but is neutral and precise in context. Strangeness or discomfort alone does not make an expression dysphemistic.

AT-RHE-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

矛盾修饰(oxymoron)Oxymoron

定义
把表面上相互矛盾的表达紧密组合在一起。
例子
“雄辩的沉默”把无言与强烈的交际力量结合起来:沉默并不真的开口,却使立场、拒绝或同意变得可以被察觉。
反例与界限
没有进一步语境时,“这个正方形是圆的”是一个错误的几何陈述。逻辑矛盾只有形成可理解的凝缩关系时,才可能成为这种修辞。

译注:保留oxymoron以区别于范围更广的paradox。不是所有矛盾组合都有相同的解释,也不能把形式矛盾本身当作深刻性的保证。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A compact combination of apparently contradictory expressions.

Example

“Eloquent silence” combines absence of words with strong communicative force: the silence does not literally speak but makes stance, refusal, or agreement perceptible.

Counterexample

The statement “the square is round” stands without context as a false geometrical claim. A logical contradiction becomes an oxymoron only through an interpretable condensed relation.

AT-METZ1-0008 · 定义与示例译稿

对立式对照(antithesis)Antithesis

定义
以平行或对应的形式,把相对立的观念鲜明地并置。
例子
“我们可以掩盖不确定性,失去信任;也可以公开不确定性,建立信任。”平行的形式把两种行动路线对照起来。
反例与界限
接连说出两项差异,如果没有组织成相对应的对立,就不构成antithesis。同样,完美的平行形式也不能证明现实中只有这两种选择。

译注:解释性标题用于避免把antithesis与所有对偶或排比等同。形式上的两端可能遮蔽其他可能性,这是原反例的核心。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A pointed juxtaposition of opposing ideas in parallel or corresponding form.

Example

“We can conceal uncertainty and forfeit trust; we can disclose it and ground trust.” The parallel form aligns two courses of action against one another.

Counterexample

Two successively named differences do not form antithesis unless designed as corresponding opposition. Perfect parallel form likewise does not prove a factually exhaustive alternative.

AT-RHE-0004 · 定义与示例译稿

交错配列(chiasmus)Chiasmus

定义
一种交叉安排:相对应的成分以相反的次序再次出现。
例子
“我们塑造语言;语言塑造我们。”主要成分互换主语与宾语的位置,把单向影响改写成反馈关系。
反例与界限
“我们塑造语言;我们考察它的作用”平行列出同一主体的两种行动,没有把相对应的成分交叉排列成AB—BA。缺少相应角色或意义关系的词序移动,也不足以构成交错配列。

译注:修订稿用同一主体的平行动作作为非交叉例,避免把仍有语义角色互换的句子排除在外。交错配列不自动等于现代汉语修辞学中所有称为回环的形式。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A crossed arrangement in which corresponding elements return in reversed order.

Example

“We shape language; language shapes us.” The principal terms exchange subject and object roles, transforming one-directional influence into feedback.

Counterexample

“We shape language; we examine its effects” places two actions of the same subject in parallel without crossing corresponding elements in an AB–BA pattern. Mere word movement without a corresponding relation of roles or meanings likewise does not establish chiasmus.

AT-W3-0416 · 定义与示例译稿

平行结构Parallelism

定义
在相互关联的语言单位中,反复出现相似的句法结构。
例子
“我们倾听,为了理解;我们理解,为了回应。”反复出现的构式连接两种运动,替换的动词则显示它们的相互依赖。
反例与界限
两个句子长度相近,如果句法功能没有可识别的对应,就不构成平行结构。词语重复可以形成首语重复或尾语重复,却未必形成整体上的平行结构。

译注:平行结构不预先等同于全部中文排比或对偶规范。译文用同一构式再现原例的分析重点,不据此主张声调、节奏和修辞效果完全相同。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The recurrence of a similar syntactic structure in related units.

Example

“We listen in order to understand; we understand in order to answer.” The recurring construction couples two movements, while the exchanged verbs expose their dependence.

Counterexample

Two sentences of similar length do not constitute parallelism when their syntactic functions do not recognisably correspond. Repetition of words may form anaphora or epiphora without producing a parallel structure as a whole.

AT-103-001 · 定义与示例译稿

首语重复(修辞)Anaphora

定义
在接续的语言单位开头,重复同一个表达。
例子
“我们等待答复。我们等待改变。我们不再沉默地等待。”相同的开头连接三个陈述,而后续部分把期待推进为决定。
反例与界限
如果一个表达只在接续单位的结尾重复,更适合分析为尾语重复。同一个词偶然聚集出现,如果没有对应的起始位置或可识别的序列,也不是修辞性的首语重复。

译注:限定为修辞用法,以区别于语言学中anaphora的回指义。这里不把一个译名的对应当作修辞术语史已经相同的证据。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The repetition of the same expression at the beginning of successive linguistic units.

Example

“We wait for an answer. We wait for change. We wait no longer in silence.” The stable opening connects three statements while their continuations develop expectation into decision.

Counterexample

When an expression recurs only at successive endings, the figure is more plausibly epiphora. An accidental cluster of one word without corresponding initial position or recognisable sequence is not rhetorical anaphora.

AT-091-010 · 定义与示例译稿

尾语重复(修辞)Epipher

定义
在接续的句子或分句结尾,重复同一个表达。
例子
“我们开放来源,为每一个人;我们解释路径,为每一个人;我们保留访问机会,为每一个人。”相同的结尾把三种不同行动汇集起来。
反例与界限
“今天我们检查来源;明天我们解释结果”构成两个相关的分句,却没有重复同一个结尾表达。只有相同的押韵音节,也不等于重复同一个词或词组。

译注:修订稿不再把Today we examine, tomorrow we examine用作清楚的非例,因为两个分句实际上重复相同的结尾。这里说明的是表达在单位末尾的重复,不仅是末尾音节相似。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The repetition of the same expression at the end of successive sentences or clauses.

Example

“We open the sources for everyone, explain the paths for everyone, preserve access for everyone.” The identical ending gathers three different actions.

Counterexample

“Today we examine the sources; tomorrow we explain the results” forms two related clauses but does not repeat an identical final expression. Shared rhyming syllables alone likewise do not amount to repetition of the same word or phrase.

AT-METZ4-0008 · 定义与示例译稿

反问(rhetorical question)Rhetorical question

定义
一种问句形式:它不期待通常的信息性回答,而是实施某种陈述、立场表达或要求。
例子
“谁会希望来源未经审查就消失呢?”这一形式不是索取姓名列表,而是在争取对可追溯保存这一要求的认同。
反例与界限
教师问“结果是什么?”并认真评价回答,即使自己知道答案,仍是在提出真正的考查问题。没有立即得到回答,也不会让一个问题自动成为反问。

译注:本修订稿的英文definition字段已经改为英语,中文定义可与该英语定义逐项核对。旧版本由德语字段翻译的记录保留在版本历史中,不倒改旧版本的来源说明。反问与设问的术语边界仍须分别说明。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An interrogative form that does not seek an ordinary informational answer but instead performs an assertion, expresses a stance or makes an appeal.

Example

“Who would want sources to disappear without review?” The form seeks no list of names but activates assent to a demand for traceable preservation.

Counterexample

A teacher who asks “What is the result?” and genuinely evaluates the reply poses a real examination question despite knowing the answer. Lack of an immediate reply does not make a question rhetorical.

AT-091-054 · 定义与示例译稿

示证性(evidentiality)Evidentiality

定义
用语言标明信息的来源或获取信息的方式。
例子
说话者的意思是:“屋顶是湿的,所以一定下过雨。”这句话标示的是推断,而不是亲眼观察到降雨本身。
反例与界限
“肯定在下雨”表达很高的确信,却还没有说明信息来源。“安娜告诉我,那里在下雨”标示转述这一获取方式,却不保证内容为真。

译注:保留evidentiality以便术语核对。示证性、传信范畴等中文译法仍待专业审校;信息来源与确信程度须分开。译例不意味着普通话具有语法上强制的示证系统。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Linguistic marking of the source or mode of access to information.

Example

A speaker says, in effect, “The roofs are wet, so it must have rained.” The utterance marks inference rather than direct visual observation of the rainfall itself.

Counterexample

“It is certainly raining” expresses high confidence but does not yet identify an information source. “Anna tells me that it is raining” marks reported access without guaranteeing truth.

AT-103-014 · 定义与示例译稿

言后效果(perlocution)Perlocution

定义
一次话语实际上对他人的情感、思想或行动产生的效果。
例子
医生平静地解释风险,预期患者会提问;患者随后却取消了原定的诊疗项目。取消该项目是实际发生的言后后果,不只是那番解释的内容。
反例与界限
“我警告你”可能成功完成警告这一行为,却不能证明对方因此害怕或改变行动。以言行事不等于言后效果。

译注:以言后效果说明本条侧重实际后果;言后行为等术语的范围待核对。例子只比较语言行为层次,不提供医疗建议,也不把说话者的意图当作已发生的效果。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The actual effect a statement has on the feelings, thoughts, or actions of others.

Example

A physician calmly explains risks and expects questions; the patient then cancels the procedure. The cancellation is an actual perlocutionary consequence, not simply the content of the explanation.

Counterexample

“I warn you” may successfully perform a warning but does not prove that the addressee becomes afraid or changes behaviour. Illocution is not perlocution.

AT-133-029 · 定义与示例译稿

以言行事(illocution)Illocution

定义
通过话语实施的约定性行为,例如断言、请求或承诺。
例子
会议上,主管说:“截止日期是明天。”结合前面的交谈,这可以是中性提醒、警告,也可以是要求立即完成文件的间接请求。
反例与界限
一句话不会仅因有人后来感到害怕就成为警告。那种反应属于言后效果;以言行事须有可识别的行动线索和适当的交际条件。

译注:保留illocution,并将其与perlocution成对阅读。汉语中的具体语气与关系条件需另作分析;句式本身不唯一决定言语行为。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A conventional act performed through an utterance, such as asserting, requesting, or promising.

Example

During a meeting, a manager says, “The deadline is tomorrow.” Depending on the preceding exchange, this may be a neutral reminder, a warning, or an indirect request to finish the documents immediately.

Counterexample

An utterance is not a warning merely because someone later becomes afraid. That response belongs to perlocutionary effect; illocution requires recognisable action cues and appropriate communicative conditions.

AT-CORE-238-001 · 定义与示例译稿

礼貌Politeness

定义
调节关系、面子和相互尊重的语言与社会实践。
例子
“可以请你把窗户关上吗?”把指令设计成关于能力的问句。从形式上保留拒绝的可能,因而顾及对方自主决定的空间。
反例与界限
如果语气、权力关系或要求本身与之冲突,一个“请”字并不会自动使话语礼貌。紧急情况下,直接警告可能比层层缓和更体贴。

译注:这里翻译原条目的分析,不声称间接问句在所有中文语境都更礼貌。社会关系、情境及接受者的判断仍须检验。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Linguistic and social practices that regulate relationship, face, and mutual regard.

Example

“Could you please close the window?” designs a directive as a question about ability. The form leaves refusal conceptually available and thereby attends to the addressee's autonomy.

Counterexample

The word “please” does not automatically make an utterance polite when tone, power, or demand contradicts it. In an emergency, a direct warning may be more considerate than elaborate mitigation.

AT-NAV-G04-016 · 定义与示例译稿

否定Negation

定义
否定拒斥某项内容,或将它置于否定运算之下。
例子
“不是所有客人都来了”允许有些人来了;“没有一个客人来”则排除了这种可能。
反例与界限
两个否定词并不在所有语言和构式中都产生肯定陈述。数一数否定标记,不能代替语法分析。

译注:例子保留部分否定与全称否定的范围差别;反例提醒跨语言的否定一致等现象,不把某种双重否定规则推广成普遍法则。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Negation rejects a content or places it under a negative operation.

Example

“Not all the guests came” permits some to have come; “No guest came” excludes that possibility.

Counterexample

Two negative words do not universally produce a positive statement. Counting markers is no substitute for grammatical analysis.

AT-PHO-W0076 · 定义与示例译稿

韵律(prosody)Prosody

定义
通过节奏、重音、音高、韵律分组和时序,对超出单个音段的言语加以组织。
例子
英语“You are coming”可以用下降曲线说成陈述,用上升曲线说成问句;若把you读得格外突出,也可能表达惊讶或责备。
反例与界限
一个未标示突出方式的孤立印刷词,本身不指定某次发话的具体韵律。生理性的音高波动,只有在语境中被感知为语言分组或立场时,才与韵律分析有关。

译注:保留英语原句,因为普通话的词汇声调与语调相互作用,不能把英语的升降对应机械移植。印刷文字不指定具体发话韵律,不等于阅读时完全没有默读韵律。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The organisation of speech through rhythm, stress, pitch, phrasing, and timing beyond individual segments.

Example

“You are coming” may be a statement with a falling contour, a question with a rise, or an expression of surprise or reproach when “you” receives extended prominence.

Counterexample

An isolated printed word without marked prominence has no particular utterance prosody. A physiological fluctuation in pitch becomes prosodically relevant only when it is perceived as linguistic grouping or stance in context.

AT-W3-0413 · 定义与示例译稿

词义演变Shift in meaning

定义
一个词所指称、评价或附带唤起的内容发生的历史变化。
例子
英语mouse先指动物;技术用法通过外形相似发展出输入设备这一义项。两种意义并存,通常由语境区分。
反例与界限
一次创造性的隐喻并不能独自证明词义演变。没有带日期的使用证据,只比较词典也无法说明某个义项何时、沿什么路径变成惯用意义。

译注:保留英语mouse的语言归属,不把这个英文词的历史当作中文“鼠”或“鼠标”的词史。这里只译介原例;本轮没有新增中文首见年代的断言。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The historical change in what a word denotes, evaluates, or implies.

Example

“Mouse” first denoted the animal; technological use developed the input-device sense through similarity of shape. Both meanings coexist and are normally separated by context.

Counterexample

A single creative metaphor does not by itself establish semantic change. A comparison of dictionaries without dated usage evidence also cannot show when or by what route a reading became conventional.

AT-119-024 · 定义与示例译稿

话轮转换(turn-taking)Turn-Taking

定义
互动中对说话者更替的协调。
例子
医生在问句结尾降低音高、垂下目光;短暂停顿后,患者开始说话。两人同时开口时,她停下来,明显地把接下来的话轮让给患者。
反例与界限
预先排定的报告名单规定了发言次序,却不一定体现会话中就地进行的话轮协调。没有语境证据,技术延迟造成的重叠不应被归为打断策略。

译注:翻译原条目所描述的互动情景,不将其中的音高或目光模式宣称为所有文化通用的规则。话轮转换不仅是先后顺序,也是局部协调的过程。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Coordination of speaker changes in interaction.

Example

The doctor lowers pitch and gaze at the end of her question; after a short pause, the patient begins. When both start together, she stops and visibly yields the next turn to him.

Counterexample

A predetermined list of presentations gives a speaker order but does not necessarily instantiate local conversational turn-taking. Technically caused overlap should not be classified as a strategy of interruption without contextual evidence.

AT-134-037 · 定义与示例译稿

可撤销推理(defeasible inference)Defeasible Inference

定义
在通常假设下成立、但可能因补充信息而被撤回的推理。
例子
根据办公室已经熄灯和通常的工作时间,有人推断里面没人了。夜班安排记录推翻了这个合理预设,却不使原来的概括在任何情况下都毫无价值。
反例与界限
有人随意改变看法,并不使一项推理成为可撤销推理。最初结论须得到可识别的正常情形假设支持;修订须回应相关新信息或已识别的例外。

译注:可撤销不是任意反悔,也不是反证已经出现才算推理。采用解释性中文译名,保留其与严格演绎有效性的区别。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An inference that holds under normal assumptions but can be retracted by additional information.

Example

From the darkened office and ordinary working hours, someone concludes that nobody remains inside. A recorded night shift defeats this reasonable presumption without making the original generalisation worthless in every case.

Counterexample

An inference is not defeasible merely because someone changes an opinion arbitrarily. The initial conclusion must be supported by identifiable normality assumptions, and revision must respond to relevant new information or a recognised exception.

AT-134-038 · 定义与示例译稿

语域化(enregisterment)Enregisterment

定义
语言特征被组合、评价,并成为可识别的社会性说话方式的过程。
例子
电视剧反复把若干说法、较慢的节奏和特定称呼同可信赖的乡村人物形象联系起来。广告随后正是借用这一整组特征来营造亲近感。
反例与界限
分析者列出一张特征表,还不等于这些特征已经成为社会可识别的表达资源。须有证据表明社会行动者把它们作为连贯的说话方式加以辨认、评价或风格化运用。

译注:语域化只是此处的工作译名,保留enregisterment供核对。它不同于一次发话中的语域转换,也不意味着乡村说话者天生更可信。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The process by which linguistic features are grouped and evaluated as recognizable social modes of speech.

Example

Television series repeatedly associate several phrases, a slower rhythm, and particular forms of address with a trustworthy rural persona. Advertising later uses precisely this bundle to perform familiarity.

Counterexample

An analyst's list of features is not yet an enregistered repertoire. Evidence must show that social actors recognise, evaluate, or stylistically deploy the features as a coherent way of speaking.

AT-NAV-G01-022 · 定义与示例译稿

推理(inference)Inference

定义
从已接受的信息推向进一步的假设或结论。
例子
“玛拉找过钥匙”使人推想钥匙当时并不在手边;却不能证明她把钥匙弄丢了。
反例与界限
两个念头依次出现,如果没有主张它们之间存在支持关系,就不构成推理。仅有时间上的先后还不够。

译注:推理的支持强度可以不同;例子中的合理联想不是逻辑必然的结论。中文译句旨在保留这个差别,不声称语用推断在每个情境都相同。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An inference moves from accepted information to a further assumption or conclusion.

Example

“Mara looked for the key” suggests that it was not immediately available; it does not prove that she had lost it.

Counterexample

Two consecutive thoughts do not constitute an inference without a claimed support relation. Temporal succession is insufficient.

AT-NAV-G04-044 · 定义与示例译稿

语域转换Register shift

定义
随着情境、活动或受众的变化而改变语言选择。
例子
一个人先向专业同事解释某个过程,再向孩子解释。所用语言可以不变,而术语、句法和预设知识发生变化。
反例与界限
短暂出现一个外语专名,并不自动构成语域转换。

译注:同一种语言内部也能转换语域;这不同于把每次换用外语都算作语域转换。与语域化联读时,须区分一次使用的调整与社会识别方式的形成。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Register shift is a change in linguistic choices relative to situation, activity or audience.

Example

Someone explains a process first to specialist colleagues and then to a child. The language may remain the same while terminology, syntax and assumed knowledge change.

Counterexample

A brief foreign proper name does not automatically constitute a register shift.

AT-PRA-W0173 · 定义与示例译稿

面子工作(facework)Facework

定义
用于维持、保护、挑战或修复参与者公共社会自我形象的交际实践。
例子
“我们或许可以再看一下这一点?”以共同检查的建议来缓和公开纠正,而不是直接把对方归为错误的一方。
反例与界限
没有关系性语境,一个中性的预约时间不具有可识别的面子工作功能。间接表达也不会自动礼貌;在某些情境中,它可能显得回避或居高临下。

译注:面子工作用于解释原概念;它不等于中文日常说法“好面子”,也不把中文的面子观与所有理论中的face预先视为完全相同。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Communicative practices used to maintain, protect, challenge, or repair participants’ public social self-image.

Example

“Could we perhaps look at this point once more?” mitigates a public correction by proposing joint examination rather than directly categorising the other participant as mistaken.

Counterexample

A neutral appointment time has no identifiable facework function without a relational context. Indirectness is not automatically polite either; in some situations it may appear evasive or condescending.

AT-W3-0283 · 定义与示例译稿

语法化Grammaticalization

定义
独立词逐渐发展出语法功能的过程。
例子
一个用于“去做某事”构式的运动动词,可能通过关于行动意图的推断,逐渐发展为将来事件的标记。
反例与界限
单个隐喻或单纯的语音缩短并不能证明语法化。一个成分共时上具有语法功能,也不足以证明它的历史路径;仍需要较早用法和可论证的中间阶段。

译注:原例提出一种可能路径,未指认具体中文词,也没有提供中文年代。本条是原定义的简要译介;语法化的更广理论范围须在完整档案中展开。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The process by which independent words develop grammatical functions.

Example

A motion verb in a construction meaning ‘go and do something’ may, through an inference of intended action, gradually develop into a marker of future events.

Counterexample

A single metaphor or mere phonetic shortening does not establish grammaticalization. A synchronically grammatical item likewise does not prove its historical pathway without earlier uses and defensible intermediate stages.

AT-W3-0320 · 定义与示例译稿

施为性(performativity)Performativity

定义
语言行为在实施之时改变现实的能力。
例子
确认达到法定人数后,当选主席说:“我在此宣布大会开幕。”通过程序上得到承认的话语,这一制度性事件开始了。
反例与界限
排练时,演员说:“我宣布会议开始。”当时没有真实会议,演员也没有相关权限。这个句子表现了那种行为,却未在该情境中实际完成它。

译注:原例说明制度性的施为条件,不把performativity的所有理论用法缩为宣布程序。施为性、表演性等译名有不同传统,此处保留英文术语以免无声合并。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The capacity of linguistic acts to alter reality as they are performed.

Example

After confirming a quorum, the elected chair says, “I hereby open the assembly.” Through the procedurally recognised utterance, the institutional event begins.

Counterexample

During rehearsal, an actor says, “I declare the meeting open,” without an actual meeting or relevant authority. The sentence represents the act but does not perform it in that situation.

AT-W3-0415 · 定义与示例译稿

重新分析(reanalysis)Reanalysis

定义
对语言结构作新的解释,尽管它最初可听见的表面形式保持不变。
例子
一个频繁出现的序列可能不再被感知为两个独立部分,而成为具有新内部边界的单位;后来依照该单位形成的形式,使这种重新解释变得可见。
反例与界限
故意说错或某位说话者一时的错误切分,还不是已经建立的重新分析。如果语法或形态结构的解释仍然相同,仅有语音变化也不够。

译注:采用解释性译名并保留reanalysis。例子描述可检验的结构变化条件,不把阅读时的一次误解升级为已经证实的历史变化。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The reinterpretation of a linguistic structure, even though its audible surface initially remains the same.

Example

A frequent sequence may cease to be perceived as two independent parts and become one unit with a new internal boundary; later formations modelled on that unit make the reinterpretation visible.

Counterexample

A deliberate slip or one speaker's temporary misparse is not yet established reanalysis. Phonological change alone is also insufficient when grammatical or morphological structure continues to be interpreted in the same way.

AT-091-043 · 定义与示例译稿

前置式话题化(本条限定德语)Topicalization

定义
本条特指:把一个句子成分前置到德语陈述句的前域,作为定位或对比的起点。处在开头,本身并不使该成分成为语篇话题。
例子
德语“Dieses Buch habe ich gestern beendet”以“这本书”为出发点;“Gestern habe ich dieses Buch beendet”则把时间选作开头的定位框架。
反例与界限
并非每个句首成分都是话题化的结果,也并非每个前置成分都是语篇话题。处于中性位置的主语,或具有对比焦点的成分,需要分别分析。

译注:修订稿明确采用本条的德语前域用法。中文的话题—述题组织,不能一概解释为把宾语移到句首;话题也不等于所有句首成分。本条不据此重定义跨语言研究中的全部topicalization模型。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Here: fronting a constituent to the pre-field of a German declarative clause for orientation or contrast. Initial position alone does not make that constituent a discourse topic.

Example

German Dieses Buch habe ich gestern beendet begins from the book, whereas Gestern habe ich dieses Buch beendet selects time as the initial orientation.

Counterexample

Not every initial constituent results from topicalization, and not every fronted element is a discourse topic. A subject in neutral position or a contrastively focused item requires separate analysis.

AT-SYN-W0146 · 定义与示例译稿

焦点(focus)Focus

定义
话语中被呈现为尤其提供信息、形成对比或回应当前问题的部分。
例子
回答“谁找到了钥匙?”时,英语“MARA found it”把焦点放在人上。重音从语境中可供选择的寻找者集合里突出玛拉。
反例与界限
一个词即使读得响亮或排版醒目,如果没有建立相关的备选关系,也不会自动成为语言学意义上的焦点。仅有句首位置,同样不足以脱离语境和信息结构作出判断。

译注:保留英语重音示例,用中文说明它与问题及备选项的关系;不把大写字母当作中文口语的发音证据。焦点与话题是相互关联但不同的分析维度。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The part of an utterance presented as especially informative, contrastive, or responsive to a current question.

Example

In response to “Who found the key?”, “MARA found it” places focus on the person. Stress selects Mara against the contextually available set of possible finders.

Counterexample

A loud or typographically conspicuous word is not automatically linguistic focus when it establishes no relevant alternative. Sentence-initial position alone is likewise insufficient without context and information structure.

AT-SYN-W0148 · 定义与示例译稿

信息结构Information structure

定义
按照已知、新增、对比、话题或焦点等关系,对话语进行组织。
例子
英语“MARA reviewed it”以人物焦点回答“谁审阅了报告?”;“Mara reviewed the REPORT”则回应“玛拉审阅了什么?”,从而选择另一组备选项。
反例与界限
句首位置不会自动使一个成分成为话题,响亮的重音也不会独自构成焦点。关键在于形式、备选项、语境中的问题和预设知识之间的关系。

译注:译文保留原条目的关系性判断,不把“已知/新增”与“话题/焦点”简单排成一一对应。英语的重音对照与中文可能采用的句式或韵律手段须分别研究。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The organisation of an utterance according to what is given, new, contrasted, topical, or focused.

Example

“MARA reviewed it” answers “Who reviewed the report?” with person focus. “Mara reviewed the REPORT” responds to “What did Mara review?” by selecting another set of alternatives.

Counterexample

Initial position does not automatically make an element a topic, and loud stress does not by itself constitute focus. The relation among form, alternatives, contextual question, and assumed knowledge is decisive.

AT-DEP2-0012 · 定义与示例译稿

话题投射(语篇组织用法)Topic projection

定义
围绕一个被突出的语篇话题组织话语,并把后续信息接续在这个话题之下。
例子
有人开头说:“至于那座老车站——屋顶是安全的,大厅还开着,轨道的问题我们明天决定。”这个开头为后面的几项陈述预先设立了框架。
反例与界限
说话者对比性地喊出“红色的那个!”来选定一个文件夹,随后却谈起别的事情。仅有突出性,不足以建立持续的话题投射。

译注:这是原Atlas条目的语篇组织用法。工作译名保留topic projection,不等于已经确认的汉语专门术语,也不能不加说明地改读为形式句法中的TopP投射或关于可完成性的另一种“投射”。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Organisation of an utterance around a highlighted discourse topic to which further information is attached.

Example

Someone begins, “As for the old station—the roof is secure, the hall remains open, and we decide on the tracks tomorrow.” The opening projects a frame for several following statements.

Counterexample

A speaker contrastively calls “THE RED ONE!” to select one folder and then discusses something else. Prominence alone does not establish continuing topic projection.

AT-091-048 · 定义与示例译稿

配价(valency)Valency

定义
词语,尤其是动词,开放特定补足位置的性质。
例子
英语“Mara gives Jonas the book”实现了给予者、接受者和被转移事物这三个角色。在“Mara gives the book away”中,接受者没有说出,但转移关系仍可供解释。
反例与界限
可选的时间或地点表达,不会仅因出现在小句里就自动受配价约束。反过来,一个参与者没有被说出,也不能证明配价框架中没有它的语义位置。

译注:保留英语give及give away的例子,不借译名假定汉语“给”具有完全相同的构式分布。角色、语法补足位置和实际说出的成分,需要分开检验。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The property of a word, especially a verb, to open up specific complement positions.

Example

“Mara gives Jonas the book” realises giver, recipient, and theme. In “Mara gives the book away”, the recipient is unexpressed while the transfer relation remains available for interpretation.

Counterexample

An optional expression of time or place is not automatically valency-bound merely because it occurs in a clause. Conversely, a participant's omission does not show that it lacks a semantic place in the valency frame.

AT-NAV-G02-033 · 定义与示例译稿

论元配置(diathesis)Diathesis

定义
本条的diathesis指语义参与者与语法功能之间的映射,以及具体构式中可供选择的配置方式。
例子
英语“Mira opens the door”和“The door is opened by Mira”是对同一个设想中的动作所作的构造性描述,但参与者与主语位置的对应不同。
反例与界限
德语“Hier wird getanzt”(这里有人跳舞)没有从及物宾语提升而来的主语。一个简单的交换公式不足以解释这种情况。

译注:标题采用解释性工作译名并保留diathesis,不把它与某一种具体被动式合并。语义参与者、主语和话题也不是同一层次;汉语被字句的不同构式须分别检验。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Diathesis here concerns mappings from semantic participants to grammatical functions and their construction-specific alternatives.

Example

“Mira opens the door” and “The door is opened by Mira” are constructed descriptions of the same imagined action with different subject mappings.

Counterexample

German “Hier wird getanzt” has no subject promoted from a transitive object. A simple exchange formula is insufficient.

AT-SYN-0002 · 定义与示例译稿

被动语态(passive voice)Passive voice

定义
一种语态构式:事件或非施事参与者成为表达的中心,而施事退居背景或不予表达。
例子
报告写道,英语“The sample was sealed at eight o’clock”,意即样品在八点封存。操作过程及其可核查性居于中心;封存样品的人可以补充说明,但在这里退居背景。
反例与界限
没有明说行动者的小句并不自动是被动句,也不是每一个被动句都在掩盖责任。须综合检查形态句法、动词类型、语境和信息功能。

译注:修订稿的定义兼顾事件视角与非施事参与者的突显,不把另一参与者的提升设为所有被动句的必要条件。中文解释英语例句的意义,不据此判定汉语句法;被字句与英语被动并非逐项同构。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A voice construction that foregrounds an event or a non-agent participant while the agent is backgrounded or left unexpressed.

Example

The report states, “The sample was sealed at eight o’clock.” The procedure and its verifiability are central; the person who sealed it can be added but remains backgrounded here.

Counterexample

A clause without an expressed actor is not automatically passive, and not every passive conceals responsibility. Morphosyntax, verb type, context, and information function must be examined together.

AT-SYN-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

省略(ellipsis)Ellipsis

定义
省去在语言上可以恢复的材料。
例子
英语“Mara reads the report, and Jonas the appendices.”的第二个并列部分没有再次说出reads;平行结构为理解补出了这个谓语。
反例与界限
一个被打断、且后续内容无法恢复的句子,并不自动构成省略。电报式的简略表达也可能删去词语,而不要求重建某一个特定句法结构。

译注:英语的并列谓语省略保留为原文,因为逐词翻成中文未必保留同一种句法。汉语中未说出的论元不能未经分析就都当作这种省略;语境可推知与某种句法省略机制并非同一个判断。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The omission of linguistically recoverable material.

Example

“Mara reads the report, and Jonas the appendices.” In the second conjunct, “reads” is not repeated; the parallel structure supplies the predicate for interpretation.

Counterexample

An interrupted sentence whose continuation cannot be recovered is not automatically ellipsis. Telegraphic style may also omit words without requiring reconstruction of a particular syntactic structure.

AT-NAV-G04-046 · 定义与示例译稿

递归(recursion)Recursion

定义
当一条规则通过调用同一规则,或调用以同样方式构建的子结构,来定义或生成结构时,就出现递归。
例子
一条叙事规则允许某个人物讲故事,而故事中的另一个人物又讲一个故事。实际文本可以在嵌套两层后停止。
反例与界限
把同一个句子重复三次,本身并不能建立递归嵌套。

译注:区分规则的可重复调用、实际文本的有限嵌套与单纯复现。本条不根据一个翻译示例宣布所有语言具有完全相同的递归句法,也不为某种语言能力另定历史起点。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Recursion occurs when a rule defines or generates a structure by invoking the same rule or substructures built in that way.

Example

A narrative rule permits a character to tell a story in which another character tells a story. The actual text may stop after two embeddings.

Counterexample

Repeating one sentence three times does not by itself establish recursive embedding.

AT-CORE-243-022 · 定义与示例译稿

名词化(nominalisation)Nominalisation

定义
由其他词类的表达,或由整个事态,形成名词或使其作名词性使用。
例子
英语“The agency approved construction surprisingly late”说出了行动机构及时间;“the late approval of construction”把事件处理为一个可指称的对象,却可能使该机构退出视野。
反例与界限
在被分析的表达中,英语“the table”只是普通名词,没有把动词、形容词或命题名词化。仅有一个名词还不够。

译注:保留英语approved/approval的形式对照。名词化可能使施事不显现,但不是每次都掩盖责任;也不能仅凭一个的字结构,就认定所有中文名词化具有同一种分析。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The formation or syntactic use of a noun from an expression of another word class or from an entire state of affairs.

Example

“The agency approved construction surprisingly late” names actor and time; “the late approval of construction” makes the event an object but can remove the agency from view.

Counterexample

“The table” is an ordinary noun without a verb, adjective, or proposition being nominalised in the expression under analysis. The presence of a noun alone is insufficient.

AT-CORE-239-032 · 定义与示例译稿

复合构词(compounding)Compounding

定义
把多个自由或黏着词干组合起来形成一个词。
例子
英语inkwell把两个熟悉的词干组合起来;“装墨水的容器”这一关系并未用单独的介词说出,而是在解释时补入。
反例与界限
在英语atlas of language中,几个词组成一个句法短语。要分析为复合构词,需要像language atlas这样受到复合词诊断支持的词汇构成,而不能只看词语相邻。

译注:本条按Atlas原定义包括自由或黏着词干。Packard的2016年章节另把自由词之间的compounding与含黏着词根的composition区分;这是分类口径差异,不能因中译名相近而抹去。拼写是否连写也不是唯一诊断。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The formation of a word by combining multiple free or bound stems.

Example

“Inkwell” combines two familiar stems; the relation “a receptacle for ink” is not expressed by a separate preposition but supplied during interpretation.

Counterexample

In “atlas of language,” several words form a syntactic phrase. A lexical formation such as “language atlas,” supported by compound diagnostics, is required for an analysis as compounding.

AT-088-007 · 定义与示例译稿

派生构词(derivation)Derivation

定义
通过派生,由一个基础形式构成新词位的构词方式。
例子
英语readable把基础read与-able组合,表示能够被阅读的事物。unreadable随后又以这个已经派生的形式为基础,进行下一步构词。
反例与界限
英语reads是read的屈折形式,不是一个新词位。分别存在的词在句法上组合,也不构成派生,除非某种构词模式形成了新的词汇单位。

译注:原定义的同根解释较概括,例子进一步展示词基与词缀。保留英语词形,避免把中文“可读/不可读”的字面对照当作同一种词缀诊断;汉语词缀和黏着词根的边界仍需按具体分析说明。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Word formation in which a new lexeme is created from a base through derivation.

Example

“Readable” combines the base read with -able to name something capable of being read. “Unreadable” then takes that derived form as the basis of a further formation.

Counterexample

“Reads” is an inflected form of “read”, not a new lexeme. A syntactic combination of separate words is likewise not derivation unless a word-formation pattern creates a new lexical unit.

AT-091-021 · 定义与示例译稿

重叠(reduplication)Reduplication

定义
通过全部或部分重复已有材料来形成语言形式。
例子
在某一种语言中,复制动词词干开头的一个规定部分,以标示动作反复发生;其他动词也遵循同一个能产模式。
反例与界限
一篇演说把独立的now连续重复三次来加强语气。这是修辞重复,但如果没有词法上的基式—复制结构,就不是本条所分析的重叠。

译注:原例没有指明语言,不能拿它当作汉语的历史或结构证据。已核查的现代汉语对照中,看看可以限制动作量,而不只是加强反复;这一对照与原译例分开记录。重叠也不自动等于叠音、反复或重复强调。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The formation of linguistic forms through the complete or partial repetition of material.

Example

In one language, a specified initial portion of the verb stem is copied to mark repeated action, and other verbs follow the same productive pattern.

Counterexample

A speech repeats the independent word “now” three times for emphasis. This is rhetorical repetition but, without a morphological base-copy structure, not reduplication.

AT-091-053 · 定义与示例译稿

话语小词(discourse particle)Discourse particle

定义
会话中用于调节话语立场、预期或语境的一种小单位。
例子
发现解决办法出乎意料地简单后,说话者用英语说:“Well, that was easy.”这里的well不为事件增加一个对象,而是标示预期的修正,并为回应设定理解框架。
反例与界限
在英语“Yes, I will come”中,yes可以是对极性问句的完整回答。不能自动把它与话语内部不重读、用来标示立场的成分分析成同一种话语小词。

译注:采用解释性工作译名,保留discourse particle以供核对。它不与汉语全部语气助词、句末助词或话语标记一一重合;原文的“调节”也不意味着说话者可以单方面决定对方如何理解。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A small unit that controls the attitude, expectation, or context of an utterance in conversation.

Example

After an unexpectedly simple solution, a speaker says, “Well, that was easy.” Well contributes no object to the event but marks a revision of expectation and frames the response.

Counterexample

In “Yes, I will come,” yes is a complete answer to a polar question. It should not automatically be analysed as the same kind of discourse particle as an unstressed stance-marking item inside an utterance.

AT-METZ1-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

语气调节(Abtönung)Attitudinal shading

定义
不替换命题本身,却细微地改变立场、预期或关系。
例子
德语“Schau doch einmal nach”可以保留“Schau nach”中的查看请求,同时把它呈现为共同情境里一个显而易见、可以采取的行动。
反例与界限
“到这里来”与“到外面去”在动作及方向上不同。替换命题,不只是对同一个交际提议作语气调节。

译注:原例中的doch和einmal保留德语,不能用一个吧、嘛或呢就宣布逐词对应。中文句末助词可提供有价值的功能比较,但具体语境、预期和关系效果仍须分别检验。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A subtle change in stance, expectation or relationship without replacing the proposition itself.

Example

German “Schau doch einmal nach” may retain the request in “Schau nach” while presenting it as an obvious action available within shared circumstances.

Counterexample

“Come here” and “Go outside” differ in action and direction. Replacing the proposition is not merely attitudinal shading of the same conversational offer.

AT-NAV-G03-015 · 定义与示例译稿

焦点小词(本条的Gradpartikel用法)Focus particle (Gradpartikel)

定义
本条把Gradpartikel用于焦点小词:它使相关表达在一组备选项中突出,并可把它放在由语境确定的标度上。
例子
英语“The path is very steep”中的very调节所表达的陡峭程度。如果莉娅比其他步行者更不可能选择这条路,“Even Leah takes this path”则把她的选择呈现为相对出乎意料;它并未让莉娅获得某个属性的更高程度。
反例与界限
并非每种强调手段都是焦点小词。大写字母、提高音量或重复姓名可以吸引注意,却未必执行所讨论的语法操作。这里按原条目深层说明采用的焦点小词范围理解。

译注:修订稿明确采用IDS把Gradpartikel作为Fokuspartikel另一名称的用法。例子中的very说明强度修饰,even说明与备选项相关的焦点作用;二者并不因为都涉及标度就成为同一操作。中文程度修饰词与焦点关联词也不因此合并。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Here Gradpartikel is used in the focus-particle sense: an item that highlights an associated expression against alternatives and may locate it on a contextually established scale.

Example

“The path is very steep” modifies the expressed degree of steepness. In a context where Leah is less likely than the other walkers to choose this path, “Even Leah takes this path” presents her choice as comparatively unexpected. Leah is not thereby assigned a higher degree of a property.

Counterexample

Not every device for emphasis is a focus particle. Capitals, increased volume or repeated names can attract attention without performing the grammatical operation at issue.

AT-NAV-G04-029 · 定义与示例译稿

语音学(phonetics)Phonetics

定义
本条限于口语领域的语音学:研究语音的物质性产生、传播和感知。
例子
同一个音的两次实现,在时长上可以不同,却不因此在所考察的语言中区别词义。
反例与界限
一个字的两种书写变体,本身不能证明存在语音差异。

译注:原条目明确限定口语,本译稿不把它扩充为所有模态的完整定义。观察到的声学差异与语言系统中的区别性类别分开;拼音字母也不是发音动作的直接图像。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

This entry addresses phonetics in the spoken-language domain: the physical production, transmission and perception of speech sounds.

Example

Two realisations of a sound may differ in duration without distinguishing words in the language concerned.

Counterexample

Two written variants of a character do not alone establish a sound difference.

AT-PHO-0002 · 定义与示例译稿

音位(phoneme)Phoneme

定义
一种特定语言中的语音类别,其对立能够区别意义。
例子
英语pin和bin的开头音,在其余环境可比的情况下区别两个词。这一最小对立支持把英语/p/与/b/分析为不同音位。
反例与界限
英语/t/的两种读法即使听起来不同,若替换并不形成词汇对立,也未必是两个音位。反过来,拼写不同本身也不能证明音位不同。

译注:保留英语pin/bin及其音位符号;不能把它的字母b按英语读法移用于汉语拼音。已读两章都把普通话相应的塞音区别描述为不送气与送气,另行列出比较。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A language-specific sound category whose contrasts can distinguish meaning.

Example

The initial sounds of “pin” and “bin” distinguish the words in an otherwise comparable environment. This minimal-pair contrast supports separate /p/ and /b/ phonemes in English.

Counterexample

Two audibly different pronunciations of /t/ are not necessarily separate English phonemes if substitution produces no lexical contrast. Conversely, different spelling alone does not establish a phonemic distinction.

AT-133-042 · 定义与示例译稿

音位变体(allophone)Allophone

定义
一个音位受语境制约的语音变体;在所考察的语言中,它不单独区别词汇意义。
例子
某个塞音在词首带有可听见的送气,而在某个辅音后不送气。如果这种分布可预测,且不构成词对之间的区别,就可以把两个变体归入一个音位。
反例与界限
声音相似本身,不足以使两个音成为同一音位的变体。如果它们在同样环境中形成对立,或说话者把它们作为不同类别处理,就更有理由分析为两个音位。

译注:原例没有指明语言,绝非普通话送气对立的说明。原短定义强调语境制约,深层说明还纳入自由或社会性变异,二者须联读。来源对普通话舌面音归属也承认分析分歧,不能仅凭互补分布就写成唯一结论。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A context-dependent phonetic variant of a phoneme that does not distinguish a separate lexical meaning in the language in question.

Example

A stop is produced with audible aspiration word-initially but without it after a particular consonant. Because distribution is predictable and distinguishes no word pairs, both variants are assigned to one phoneme.

Counterexample

Phonetic similarity alone does not make two sounds allophones. If they occur contrastively in the same environment or speakers treat them as different categories, separate phonemes are the stronger analysis.

AT-134-001 · 定义与示例译稿

音位变体现象(allophony)Allophony

定义
一个音位的系统性发音变体关系;这些变体在某一语言中不区别词汇。
例子
某个塞音在重读音节开头明显送气,却在某个擦音后不送气。这种交替可以预测,也不产生词汇区别。
反例与界限
两个相似的音并不自动具有音位变体关系。如果它们在相同环境中区别词汇,或说话者把它们作为不同类别处理,证据就更支持音位对立。

译注:用解释性标题区分音位变体这一具体实现与多个实现之间的系统关系,保留allophony核对。原例不标语言,不能误读为普通话的送气音与不送气音总属一个音位。声音差别的功能须在具体语言内检验。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Systematic pronunciation variants of a phoneme that do not distinguish between words in a language.

Example

A stop is produced with strong aspiration at the beginning of a stressed syllable but without it after a particular fricative. The alternation is predictable and creates no lexical distinction.

Counterexample

Two similar sounds are not automatically allophonically related. If they distinguish words in the same environment or speakers categorically separate them, the evidence supports phonemic contrast rather than allophony.

AT-103-005 · 定义与示例译稿

最小对立对(minimal pair)Minimal pair

定义
两个仅有一个语音差别、意义又不同的词。
例子
英语pin与bin只在开头的/p/与/b/上不同。替换这一处声音,就足以形成另一个英语词汇项。
反例与界限
英语pin和bat在多个语音位置上不同,因而不能分离出一个单独的语音对立。若两个词读音相同,只有拼写不同也不足以构成最小对立。是否纳入插入或删除的词对,要说明比较标准;语法形式不同,本身不是排除理由。

译注:修订稿使用多处语音差异作为清楚的非例,不再只因pin与pins的语法形式不同便把它们普遍排除。英语pin/bin保留为原语料;汉语声调对立仍须控制音段等其他条件。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Two words that differ by only one sound and have different meanings.

Example

“Pin” and “bin” differ initially only in /p/ versus /b/. Replacing that one sound is sufficient to create a distinct English lexical item.

Counterexample

“Pin” and “bat” differ at several sound positions and therefore do not isolate one contrast. Different spelling alone is also insufficient when two words have the same pronunciation. Whether insertion or deletion pairs are included depends on the explicitly chosen comparison criterion; a difference in grammatical form alone is not a disqualification.

AT-103-006 · 定义与示例译稿

音系配列(phonotactics)Phonotactics

定义
一种语言中特有的规则,规定哪些语音组合与音节结构可被允许。
例子
一个借入词以某辅音群开头,而接受语言不允许这种词首组合。说话者有规律地插入一个元音,使它符合本语言的音系配列。
反例与界限
发音困难本身,不能证明某个组合在音系上不可能;反之,一个容易发出的序列,也可能在某语言的词汇中系统性地缺席。

译注:采用工作译名并保留phonotactics;音段组合限制不是人体构音能力的完整清单。来源把组合限制与偶然的词汇空缺区分,且其Mandarin范围另有说明,不能把其中一套库存数值推广到全部汉语。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Language-specific rules governing which sound sequences and syllable structures are permissible.

Example

A borrowed word begins with a consonant cluster not permitted word-initially in the receiving language. Speakers regularly insert a vowel, making the form phonotactically compatible.

Counterexample

Difficulty of articulation does not by itself prove phonotactic impossibility. Conversely, an easily pronounceable sequence may be systematically absent from the words of a particular language.

AT-088-003 · 定义与示例译稿

音节(syllable)Syllable

定义
具有响度峰、通常以元音为中心,并按节奏组织起来的语音单位。
例子
atlas通常被划分成两个音节,各自围绕一个元音峰组织。仅看它写出的字母,不能说明全部的音系分组。
反例与界限
一组可见的字母并不自动就是一个音节,因为文字与语音结构可能不一致。语素也未必同音节重合:一个语素可以跨越多个音节,也可能没有自己独立的音节。

译注:这里的响度指sonority这一组织维度,不是简单的音量大小。原词atlas保留;汉字、拼音字母、语素与音节不是可逐项互换的单位。即使声母缺位,也不能因此说音节不存在。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A rhythmically organized sound unit with a peak of sonority, usually centered around a vowel.

Example

The word “atlas” is commonly divided into two syllables, each organised around its own vowel peak. Its written letters alone do not explain the full phonological grouping.

Counterexample

A visible group of letters is not automatically a syllable because writing and sound structure may diverge. Nor do morphemes necessarily coincide with syllables: one morpheme may span several syllables or lack a syllable of its own.

AT-133-001 · 定义与示例译稿

音节重量(syllable weight)Syllable weight

定义
按韵律上的份量对音节所作的分类,常区分轻音节与重音节。
例子
在某种语言中,含长元音的音节有规律地吸引词重音,短元音开音节则不如此。短元音闭音节的表现,还取决于韵尾是否计入重量。
反例与界限
测得时长较长的音节,并不自动是音系上的重音节。如果重音、声调及相关过程不把它与其他重音节归在一类,时长差异就可能只是语音性的。

译注:原例未指定语言,不把它写成汉语音节重量规则。轻音节这一分析类别也不能只凭中文的轻字,就与普通话轻声或非重读音节等同;音拍mora、重量、重音和时长分别处理。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The classification of syllables based on their prosodic extent, often described as light or heavy.

Example

In one language, a syllable with a long vowel regularly attracts word stress while a short open syllable does not. A short closed syllable patterns differently depending on whether its coda bears weight.

Counterexample

A syllable with longer measured duration is not automatically phonologically heavy. If stress, tone, and relevant processes do not group it with other heavy syllables, duration may be purely phonetic.

AT-133-043 · 定义与示例译稿

喉部发声(phonation)Phonation

定义
气流与喉部振动或开放状态相互作用,产生并调节声音的过程。
例子
在某种语言中,两个其他方面相同的词,通过常态发声与气声的系统差别相区分。声学测量及说话者判断共同确认音质具有词汇功能。
反例与界限
声音粗糙或轻弱,不足以可靠判断某一种发声类型或障碍。相似听感可能出自不同的声门状态、构音、声学条件或录音因素。

译注:标题用解释性工作译名保留phonation,避免把它与全部构音或所有发音现象合并。原例不指名语言,本轮不把它改称普通话事实,也不据声音印象进行病理判断;喉部机制、音高与所感知的音质须分开。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The production and modulation of sound through airflow and the vibratory or opening states of the larynx.

Example

In one language, two otherwise identical words differ systematically through modal versus breathy phonation. Acoustic measures and speaker judgements confirm that voice quality carries lexical function.

Counterexample

A rough or quiet voice does not securely diagnose a specific phonation type or disorder. Similar auditory impressions can arise from different glottal, articulatory, acoustic, or recording-related causes.

AT-144-006 · 定义与示例译稿

词汇声调(lexical tone)Lexical tone

定义
利用音高区别词汇或语法形式。
例子
在一个虚构的声调语言中,ma音节的高调意为“绳子”,降调意为“呼叫”;相同音段通过声调形成一个可检验的最小对立。
反例与界限
并非每一次可听见的音高变化都是词汇声调。它须在某个语言系统中有规律地区别词汇或语法形式,并排除语调变化的干扰。

译注:原例明确为虚构,绳子/呼叫不是普通话ma的词义,不可借相似拼写冒充汉语词例。标题保留lexical tone;短定义包括语法形式,深层说明聚焦词汇/语素身份,工作稿保留这一范围提示。普通话妈、麻、马、骂的实证比较另列。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The use of pitch to distinguish words or grammatical forms.

Example

In an invented tone language, the syllable “ma” with high tone means “rope” and with falling tone means “call”; identical segments form a testable minimal pair through tone.

Counterexample

Not every audible pitch change is lexical tone. It must regularly distinguish words or grammatical forms within a linguistic system and be controlled against intonational variation.

AT-119-008 · 定义与示例译稿

声调语言(tone language)Tone language

定义
以音高模式有规律地标示词汇或语法区别的语言。
例子
在某一种语言中,同一说话者把音段相同的两个音节读出不同的相对调型;听者据此辨认为不同的词。
反例与界限
说话者在句末升高音高以表示提问,却不改变某个词的词汇意义。仅有句子语调,并不能使一种语言成为声调语言。

译注:声调语言同样可以有语调;有词汇声调不等于每个音节都固定保持同一孤立调值。所读Mandarin章节以特定范围为对象,普通话四个主要声调也不是所有汉语语言及变体的完整声调清单。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A language in which pitch patterns regularly mark lexical or grammatical distinctions.

Example

Two segmentally identical syllables are spoken with different relative contours in one language and recognised as different words, although the same voice produces both tokens.

Counterexample

A speaker raises pitch at the end of a sentence to signal a question without changing the lexical meaning of a word. Sentence intonation alone does not make a language tonal.

AT-NAV-G05-025 · 定义与示例译稿

声调(本条指语言学tone)Tone

定义
本条所说的tone,是参与词汇或语法区别的对立性音高或调型。
例子
在示意性的声调系统中,[má]与[mà]可以区别词汇;这个例子只展示对立,不声称任何实际词义。
反例与界限
把一个音节读得更响,并不因此使它带上词汇性的高调。

译注:原条目对Ton/tone已有范围限定,本译稿保留,不扩大为所有音乐音、声音色彩或情绪语气。示例的重音符号表示所设想的调型,不是已核实的汉语词条。声调与词汇声调两个目录项均保留,未在翻译中擅自合并。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Tone here concerns contrastive pitch or pitch contours contributing to lexical or grammatical distinctions.

Example

In a schematic tone system, [má] and [mà] can distinguish words; the example illustrates the contrast without claiming actual word meanings.

Counterexample

A louder syllable does not thereby carry a lexical high tone.

AT-134-003 · 定义与示例译稿

音高重音系统(pitch-accent system)Pitch-accent system

定义
用于某些词韵律系统的名称:具有词汇或语法区别作用的音高,在分布上受到限制。这一类别存在争议,并不已经预设通常的词重音。
例子
两个其他方面相同的词,区别在于其单个词汇性高调锚定在词的较早还是较后位置。进入较长话语后,即使增加了短语语调,这个位置仍可识别。
反例与界限
重读音节上出现清晰的升调,不能就此证明存在音高重音系统。如果这种变化完全由句子语调产生,或只是重音的自动伴随现象,便没有证明词汇性的音高对立。

译注:修订稿分开考察音高对立、stress、一般突显性与句子语调,不从pitch accent这一标签直接推出其固定组合。原例是未指名语言的分析模型,不能据此把普通话归入此类。Tonakzent这一术语的词源在本次核查中仍未确定;旧字段Japanisch不作为已证实的词源。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A label for word-prosodic systems with a restricted distribution of lexically or grammatically contrastive pitch; the category is debated and does not by itself imply ordinary word stress.

Example

Two otherwise identical words differ in whether their single lexical high tone is anchored early or late. In longer utterances the position remains identifiable despite additional phrasal intonation.

Counterexample

A clear pitch rise on a stressed syllable does not establish a pitch-accent system. If the movement follows entirely from sentence intonation or is an automatic correlate of stress, lexical pitch contrast is absent.

AT-PHO-W0054 · 定义与示例译稿

韵律突显/重音(accent)Accent

定义
通过重读、音高、时长或强度,使一个音节、词或短语相对突出。
例子
英语名词REcord与动词reCORD展示了同重音位置相关的词汇对照;具体读法在说话者及变体之间可能不同。
反例与界限
大写或粗体不是口语中的重音,尽管它们可以在图形上表示突出性。跨越整个小句的音高变化属于语调,不必突出某一个单位。

译注:此处accent不是日常所谓口音。采用双重解释性标题以保留原定义较宽的突出性范围;不能只用音量解释,也不把英语REcord/reCORD逐词翻译后仍当作相同的汉语重音证据。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Relative prominence assigned to a syllable, word, or phrase through stress, pitch, duration, or intensity.

Example

In English, noun “REcord” and verb “reCORD” illustrate a lexical contrast associated with stress placement, although pronunciation varies among speakers and varieties.

Counterexample

Capitalisation or bold type is not spoken accent, although it may represent prominence graphically. A pitch movement across an entire clause belongs to intonation and need not accent one unit.

AT-091-017 · 定义与示例译稿

语调(intonation)Intonation

定义
跨越音节、词与话语的言语旋律变化模式。
例子
英语You are coming?在句末上升时,可以请求确认;以降调说You are coming.,则较容易把同一组词呈现为陈述或坚决的预期。
反例与界限
只有音量变化,不能构成语调曲线。词汇声调也须区分:它可以区别词义,而不只是组织更大的话语单位。

译注:保留英语句子与可以/较容易这类非绝对措辞。中文释义不是普通话录音,不能用标点证明普通话也有同样的语调—问句对应关系;声调语言中,词汇声调与话语层面的音高组织需要共同分析。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The pattern of speech melody across syllables, words, and utterances.

Example

“You are coming?” with a final rise may request confirmation, while a falling “You are coming.” presents the same words more readily as an assertion or firm expectation.

Counterexample

Loudness alone does not create an intonational contour. Lexical tone must also be distinguished because it can contrast word meanings rather than primarily organising the larger utterance.

AT-DEP1-0026 · 定义与示例译稿

句子语调(sentence intonation)Sentence intonation

定义
借音高曲线、重音安排与节奏组织,使一句话被听作提问、陈述或某种立场。
例子
英语You are coming.以句末降调,可以标示确信;明显上升且带有焦点的曲线,则可以把同样的词组织为惊讶的回声式提问:You are coming?
反例与界限
英语come与came在音段和形态上不同。替换词形或句法,不是单纯的语调变化,即使读音也随之改变。

译注:与较宽的语调条目分别保留,本条强调话语单位的组织;二者重叠不在翻译阶段擅自删并。深层说明已否定升调必然等于问句的普遍公式。本例仍是英语,不把come/came翻译成没有相同形态对照的中文词形。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Pitch contour, accentuation and rhythmic organisation through which a sentence is heard as question, statement or stance.

Example

“You are coming.” may mark certainty with a final fall; a clearly rising, focused contour can offer the same wording as a surprised echo question: “You are coming?”

Counterexample

“Come” and “came” differ segmentally and morphologically. Replacing word form or syntax is not an intonational change even if pronunciation changes with it.

AT-CORE-239-054 · 定义与示例译稿

文字系统(writing system)Writing system

定义
由图形符号及其规则组成、用来表征语言单位的有组织系统。
例子
同一段声音序列,可以用拉丁字母、西里尔字母或特别改造的文字系统,以不同方式显现并切分;所记录的语言内容保持关联,图形路径却发生变化。
反例与界限
任意创作的一组装饰符号,还不能算文字系统:它须具有约定的对应关系与组合实践,使语言表达能够被写下并读出。

译注:文字系统不是语言本身,也不等于某一种字体。原例不声称只要换字母就能无损记录任何语言。汉字系统的构形、语音联系与词汇组织须分层分析,不能只用表意二字概括。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An organised inventory of graphic signs and rules for representing linguistic units.

Example

The same sound sequence can be made visible and segmented differently in Latin, Cyrillic, or a specially adapted script; the language remains related while its graphic path changes.

Counterexample

A freely invented collection of decorative signs is not yet a writing system when no conventional mapping and combinatorial practice enables linguistic utterances to be written and read.

AT-CORE-238-054 · 定义与示例译稿

文字符号(written character)Written character

定义
文字系统中具有表音、表音节或表义功能的图形单位。
例子
汉字山在汉字系统中,与某个语素及其读音具有约定关系。它的三个图形成分既不是一套字母表,也不只是一幅山的画。
反例与界限
一个任意划痕,如果不在文字系统内承担约定功能,就不是文字符号。图像也不会仅凭外形,就变成书面语言的单位。

译注:这是一般性的文字符号条目,不只指汉字。原例的三个图形成分宜在笔画层面理解,不能冒充三个独立表义部件;看起来像山,不等于读者无需知道语言和文字惯例就能读出它。当前字形也不能独自证明其全部历史。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A graphic unit of a writing system with phonetic, syllabic, or semantic function.

Example

The character “山” has a conventional relation to a morpheme and pronunciation in Chinese writing. Its three graphic components are neither an alphabet nor merely a picture of a mountain.

Counterexample

An arbitrary scratch is not a written character unless it has a conventional function within a writing system. An image likewise does not become a unit of written language through graphic form alone.

AT-DEP3-0003 · 定义与示例译稿

字母文字(alphabetic writing)Alphabetic writing

定义
以有限的、可反复使用的符号来表征语音音段的文字系统。
例子
英语ship组合了字母符号,但其中sh代表一个辅音,许多元音字母的音值又取决于环境;拼写并不是一个字母对应一个声音的简单镜像。
反例与界限
某套技术代码只把拉丁字母的外形用作整条指令的符号;外形像字母,不足以使它的工作方式成为字母文字。

译注:原深层说明还区分辅音文字、元音附标文字和音节文字,不把所有使用拉丁字形的系统归成同一类型。拼音可以帮助说明字母化的语音记录,但不能据此把汉字本身说成字母文字,也不能推导文字发展的高低等级。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A writing system that represents speech segments with a limited set of reusable signs.

Example

English “ship” combines alphabetic signs, but “sh” represents one consonant and many vowels have context-dependent values; spelling does not simply mirror one sound with one letter.

Counterexample

A system uses shapes taken from the Latin alphabet solely as whole-command symbols in a technical code. External letter shape alone does not make its operation alphabetic.

AT-CORE-239-053 · 定义与示例译稿

文字史(history of writing)History of writing

定义
文字、书写技术及其文化用途的历史发展。
例子
原例以德语手写体Kurrent、学校标准Sütterlin以及拉丁字形系统中的后续手写实践为参照:字形改变,也会改变后人能否读懂旧家书。
反例与界限
一张图表仅按视觉相似排列文字,并宣称字母文字是必然终点;缺少来源和传承路径,这还不是可辩护的文字史。

译注:原例保留德国书写史语境,不移植为中国经历;该简略序列也不是排他的书体谱系。汉字历史表中的代表形式、使用时期与直接传承关系要分开;后世对古字的解释不自动等于最初造字事实。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The historical development of scripts, writing techniques, and their cultural uses.

Example

The shift from handwritten Kurrent through the school standard of Sütterlin to Latin-derived handwriting changed forms and also who could later read older family letters.

Counterexample

A chart arranges scripts by visual resemblance and declares the alphabet their inevitable endpoint. Without sources and transmission pathways, this is not a defensible history of writing.

AT-CORE-239-014 · 定义与示例译稿

铭刻研究(epigraphy)Epigraphy

定义
把铭文作为物质、历史和语言证据加以研究的学问。
例子
同样是“献给共同体”这几个字,出现在纪念性大门、小型还愿牌和被再利用的建筑石材上,会指向不同的受众、委托者及保存时间。
反例与界限
一本现代书只印出古代铭文的文字,却没有图像、尺寸、出土地点或补字标记。这个文本可以提供帮助,但不能代替铭刻材料的完整记录。

译注:采用较宽的解释性工作译名并保留epigraphy;不把它缩成只研究石碑,也不把中国金石学的全部历史范围直接等同于这个英语词。来源里的甲骨或金文示意表,只能支持相应图示,不能代替单件器物的出处、释读及断代档案。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The study of inscriptions as material, historical, and linguistic evidence.

Example

The same words “to the community” imply different audiences, patrons, and durations on a monumental gate, a small votive tablet, and a reused building stone.

Counterexample

A modern book prints the wording of an ancient inscription without image, dimensions, findspot, or markings for restored passages. The text may help but does not replace epigraphic documentation.

AT-CORE-238-053 · 定义与示例译稿

书面性(writtenness)Writtenness

定义
一种交际形式:语言被图形化地固定、在空间中安排,并与即时情境拉开距离。
例子
口头决定被保存为可追踪版本的记录,随后便能被引用、比较并在日后修正;但文档也须补充说明已经不在场的会话背景。
反例与界限
一份书面合同被朗读出来,物质媒介上成为口语,在组织方式上却仍具有很强的书面性。反过来,即兴聊天消息可以在媒介上是书面的,在构思上却接近口语。

译注:修订稿的英文标题为Writtenness,中文书面性与该条讨论的交际条件对应。识字能力、书面交际条件与书面语风格仍须分别讨论;这不是对所有中文书写风格作统一判断。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A mode of communication in which language is graphically fixed, spatially organised and available beyond the immediate speaking situation.

Example

An oral decision is preserved in a versioned record. It can then be quoted, compared, and corrected later, while the document must explain conversational context that is no longer present.

Counterexample

A written contract read aloud is materially spoken but remains strongly written in conception. Conversely, a spontaneous chat message can be materially written and conceptually oral.

AT-CORE-239-062 · 定义与示例译稿

转写(含语音转写;transcription)Transcription

定义
按规则用书面形式表征言语、声音或另一种文字中的材料。
例子
会话转写把yes [exactly]与下方同时出现的回应对齐;粗略的口头内容记录虽然保留词语,却会失去它们在时间上的重叠关系。
反例与界限
访谈后,研究者只用自己的话概述她认为最重要的信息。这是解释或摘要,不是转写。

译注:保留原定义较宽的transcription范围,包括语音及文字材料;不能只用中文音译一词概括,更不能同意义翻译混同。拼音有正写惯例,也不等于逐项记录全部实际语音细节的窄式音标。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A rule-governed written representation of speech, sounds, or another script.

Example

A conversation transcript aligns “yes [exactly]” with the overlapping response beneath it; a rough verbal record would retain the words but lose their simultaneity.

Counterexample

After an interview, a researcher paraphrases only what she considers the main message in her own words. This is interpretation or summary, not transcription.

AT-103-026 · 定义与示例译稿

按字符对应的转写(transliteration)Transliteration

定义
按规则,把一种文字系统中的字符转换成另一种文字系统中的字符。
例子
一个目录按某套ISO方案转换每个西里尔字母,并保留附加符号的区别。读者即使未能准确读出俄语词,也可以重建原拼写。
反例与界限
供旅行者使用的非正式发音提示,属于语音导向的转写,不一定是transliteration;没有明确映射规则、只按外形相似随意替换,也不是可靠的字符转写。

译注:解释性标题保留英语,以免两个中文都可叫转写的概念失去区别。关键是声明具体方案、检查哪些字形区别被保留。汉字到拼音的转换不能据此被假定为可唯一逆转;同音字词可能得到同一拼音串。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Rule-based conversion of characters from one writing system into characters of another writing system.

Example

A catalogue maps every Cyrillic letter according to an ISO scheme and retains diacritic distinctions. Readers can reconstruct the original spelling even if they cannot pronounce the Russian word accurately.

Counterexample

An informal pronunciation aid for travellers is transcription, not necessarily transliteration. Inconsistent substitution based on visual resemblance without a documented mapping rule is also not reliable transliteration.

AT-CORE-242-031 · 定义与示例译稿

表意观念与记号方式(ideography)Ideography

定义
一种观念或实践:把书写符号直接联系到概念或观念,而不是主要联系到声音形式。
例子
一个新设计的导向系统,用风格化的容器图形表示饮用水;旅行者常常不经发音就领会意图,但仍要通过使用情境学习它的确切范围。
反例与界限
外形像图画的符号并不自动具有表意性质;一个记号容易被理解,也不能证明它直接表示普遍观念。使用方式与约定的读取规则仍须考察。

译注:不用一个未经说明的表意文字标签直接给全部汉字定性。原深层说明已指出,真实文字系统常结合语义、语音和约定信息;此处的ideography既是历史观念,也是有限的功能描述,并非六书中的某一类天然与它一一对应。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The conception or practice of relating written signs directly to concepts or ideas rather than primarily to sound forms.

Example

A newly designed wayfinding system uses a stylised vessel to indicate drinking water; travellers often grasp the intention without pronunciation but learn its exact scope only through context of use.

Counterexample

A pictorial-looking sign is not automatically ideographic, and a symbol's intelligibility does not prove direct representation of universal ideas. Usage and conventional reading rules require investigation.

AT-DEP1-0020 · 定义与示例译稿

概念—逻辑文字(concept script)Concept script

定义
一种有意设计的文字系统,其符号直接表征概念或逻辑关系。
例子
用经过定义的符号,而不是一段长句,来表示对象、属性与量化之间的关系;随后,一条推导规则使原本隐藏的推论可以检验。
反例与界限
车站里的一个象形指示记号标出出口,却没有提供系统的概念清单或逻辑推导规则。孤立的像似符号,不足以构成概念—逻辑文字。

译注:本条依据原深层说明,聚焦计划性的概念/逻辑表示与推导,不把它同一般汉字系统合并。也不借此假定一种没有理论前提、全人类无需学习就能理解的思想文字;正式的中文命名仍待专业核对。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A writing system designed so its signs directly represent concepts or logical relations.

Example

A relation among object, property, and quantification is represented by defined signs rather than a long sentence; a derivation rule then makes an otherwise hidden inference testable.

Counterexample

A pictogram indicates an exit in a station but supplies neither a systematic conceptual inventory nor rules of logical derivation. Isolated iconic signs do not constitute a concept script.

AT-DEP1-0028 · 定义与示例译稿

词形—图像混合书写(word-image writing)Word-image writing

定义
一种书写方式:符号既作为语言单位被读取,又作为图像形式被观看。
例子
在一幅字体构成中,英语wave沿起伏的曲线排列;读者一边读出这个词,一边看见它所指的运动。
反例与界限
一幅树的画旁边印着tree。图像补充了文字,但这个词本身没有被图像化地组织,因而还不是本条所说的词形—图像混合书写。

译注:本条针对经过设计的文字图像、形状诗等,不把所有汉字当作这种混合形式。原定义中的语言可读性与图像组织须同时检验;仅因某字有象形来源,不足以认定它就是本条的现代设计方式。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A mode of writing in which signs are read both as linguistic units and as pictorial forms.

Example

In a typographic composition, the word “wave” follows an undulating line; readers decode the expression while simultaneously seeing the movement it denotes.

Counterexample

A drawing of a tree stands beside the printed word “tree.” The illustration supplements the text, but the word itself is not pictorially organised and does not form word-image writing.

AT-DEP1-0027 · 定义与示例译稿

文字的视觉版貌(graphic appearance)Graphic appearance

定义
由字体、间距、结构与符号排列形成的文本整体可见形态。
例子
同一句警告,一次以小字埋在密集段落中,一次放在表格上方并留出充足空白。措辞不变,可见性、分量与所期待的回应却发生变化。
反例与界限
单有装饰字体,还不能解释整体版貌,除非它参与层级、导航或功能。如果措辞与情境也同时变化,就不能把观察到的效果单独归给排版。

译注:采用解释性工作译名,区分整体版貌、具体字体、正写规范和单个字形。汉字内部的左右/上下部件布局提供另一层图形结构,但不能不加说明地把字内部构形与整页文本版式当成同一层次。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The visible overall shape of a text created by typography, spacing, structure and arrangement of signs.

Example

The same warning appears once in small type within a dense paragraph and once above a form with ample white space. Its wording remains constant, but visibility, weight, and the expected response change.

Counterexample

A decorative typeface alone does not explain a graphic appearance unless it participates in hierarchy, navigation, or function. An observed effect cannot be assigned to typography if wording and context changed at the same time.

AT-NAV-G03-022 · 定义与示例译稿

同形关系(homography)Homography

定义
不同词汇项或读法共享相同书写形式的关系。
例子
英语lead表示引导,与作为金属名称的lead拼写相同,发音却不同。
反例与界限
同一个隐喻用法的两种解释,本身并不能证明存在两个同形的词汇项。

译注:保留英语lead,不用汉字译名取代其相同拼写。原短定义包括不同读法,深层说明进一步要求独立判断是否存在不同词项;因此,多音字、一个词的多义与两个词同形不能只凭一个字形就一并判定。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Homography is identity of written form across distinct lexical items or readings.

Example

English lead meaning “to guide” and lead as a metal name share their spelling but differ in pronunciation.

Counterexample

Two interpretations of a metaphorical use do not by themselves establish two homographic lexemes.

AT-103-021 · 定义与示例译稿

像似符号(icon)Icon

定义
通过被感知到的相似性或结构对应,指向其对象的符号。
例子
公共交通图缩短距离、拉直线路,却保留站点间的连接。即使图表不像可见的城市,这种结构上的相似仍能帮助导航。
反例与界限
红色交通信号主要通过习得规则表示停止,在这一方面主要属于约定性符号。烟因与火具有因果联系而指向火,在这一方面起指示符号作用,不是像似符号。

译注:icon不只指图画或软件图标;本条保留关系图式的像似性。某个汉字即使具有可辨识的图像联系,也仍须考察其约定的语言功能;像似、指示与约定性可以是分析维度,而不是把全部文字永久分到互斥的三个盒子。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A sign that refers to its object through perceived similarity or structural correspondence.

Example

A transit map shortens distances and straightens lines while preserving connections. This structural likeness enables navigation although the diagram scarcely resembles the visible city.

Counterexample

A red traffic light means stop primarily through a learned rule and is therefore chiefly symbolic. Smoke refers causally to fire and functions in that respect as an index, not an icon.

AT-134-029 · 定义与示例译稿

像似性(iconicity)Iconicity

定义
符号形式与其所指或内容,在结构上呈现相似性的关系。
例子
一组操作说明,把句子严格按照待执行动作的时间顺序排列。语言的线性形式使过程容易追踪,尽管采用其他顺序也可能合乎语法。
反例与界限
松散的主题联系,或历史上偶然出现的形式吻合,不足以证明像似性。如果不能指出具体结构维度及其语境相关性,几乎任何形式都能被重新说成像其内容。

译注:像似性不是只有看起来像图画这一种。原例是语言顺序与事件顺序之间的关系,不是全部汉字的共同本质。应说明比较了哪一维度、哪些信息被省略,以及约定在理解中起什么作用。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A relationship in which the form of a sign exhibits structural similarity to its referent or content.

Example

A set of instructions arranges its sentences in exactly the temporal order of the actions to be performed. Linear linguistic form makes the process immediately traceable, although other arrangements would be grammatical.

Counterexample

A loose thematic association or historically accidental formal match is not sufficient evidence of iconicity. Without a specifiable structural dimension and contextual relevance, almost any form could be redescribed as resembling its content.

AT-DEP6-0020 · 定义与示例译稿

文本化(entextualisation)Entextualisation

定义
把转瞬即逝的言语或实践,转变为有边界、可重复、可转移的文本形式。
例子
一次活跃的团队会议,变成按议程、决定与发言归属整理的纪要;笑声、犹豫的开头和许多旁谈,从日后可引用的文本中消失。
反例与界限
一份未公开的录音虽然在技术上保存声音,却未因此把它组织成有边界的文本版本。仅有录音,并不足以证明完成了文本化。

译注:译名跟随原英语entextualisation及其对象,避免把德语Verschriftung一律理解为把声音写成字。文本化、按规则转写、识字能力与直接记录不是同一过程;本条采用的纪要场景也不是对所有理论中text的穷尽定义。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The transformation of transient speech or practice into a bounded, repeatable and transportable textual form.

Example

A lively team meeting becomes minutes arranged by agenda, decisions, and attributed speakers; laughter, hesitant entries, and many side remarks disappear from the later quotable text.

Counterexample

An unpublished audio recording technically preserves sound but does not yet organise it into a bounded textual version. Recording alone is therefore not entextualisation.

AT-NAV-G05-045 · 定义与示例译稿

词(word)Word

定义
词并不自动在每个分析层面都指同一个单位。
例子
英语can't在书写上常作为一个单位出现,却包含可以分析出的can与否定成分的组合。
反例与界限
一个概念可以用多个词表达,一个词也可以有多个意义。

译注:保留can't,不用中文不能替换后仍宣称具有相同书写边界。字、音节、语素、语法词和韵律词分别检验;Packard采用的句法槽位定义是一种明确的分析选择,不是所有汉语研究唯一可用的词定义。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Word does not identify an automatically identical unit at every analytical level.

Example

English “can't” often appears as one orthographic unit but contains an analysable combination of can and negation.

Counterexample

One concept can be expressed by several words, and one word can have several meanings.

AT-091-030 · 定义与示例译稿

词位(lexeme)Lexeme

定义
一个词各种语法形式背后的抽象词汇单位。
例子
某个语料库包含英语writes、wrote和written;词汇检索把它们归入词位WRITE,同时保留其语法差异供分析。
反例与界限
拼写相同的两个形式未必属于同一词位,例如英语bank的不同词汇意义。反过来,go与went这样外形差别很大的形式,也可能归在一起。

译注:用词位并保留lexeme,区别词典的引述形式、具体词形、出现次数与义项。原例的英语形态关系不移植给汉语;汉语没有同样的动词范式,也不因此失去抽象词汇单位的分析问题。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An abstract lexical unit underlying a word’s various grammatical forms.

Example

A corpus contains “writes,” “wrote,” and “written.” Lexical search assigns them to the lexeme WRITE while preserving their grammatical differences for analysis.

Counterexample

Two identically written forms need not instantiate one lexeme, as the distinct meanings of English “bank” show. Conversely, very different forms such as “go” and “went” may belong together.

AT-NAV-G05-047 · 定义与示例译稿

词形(word form)Word form

定义
词形是一个词位的语法性实现。
例子
德语geht与ging是gehen(去)的不同形式;geht出现两次,则是同一形式类型的两次实例。
反例与界限
一个形式不变的副词,即使没有屈折变化系列,也仍然具有词形。

译注:不把词形限定成发生过变形的词。汉语中的不变形式同样可以进入语法分析,但不能把单个字形变体、书写次数与不同语法词形直接等同。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A word form is a grammatical realisation of a lexeme.

Example

German geht and ging are different forms of gehen (“go”); two occurrences of geht are two tokens of the same form type.

Counterexample

An invariable adverb still has a word form despite lacking an inflectional series.

AT-NAV-G05-046 · 定义与示例译稿

词类(word class)Word class

定义
按语法标准把词归成的类别。
例子
英语bottle可以作名词;在They bottle the juice中,bottle则具有动词性质。
反例与界限
一个表达即使命名某种活动,也不因此就成为动词。

译注:保留英语bottle的形式对照。来源明确讨论汉语词类划分在理论、标准与命名上的分歧;名词、动词、形容词等标签须与具体分布和组合行为联读,不能只凭中文词义或某个英语译词决定类别。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A word class groups words by grammatical criteria.

Example

English bottle can function as a noun; in “They bottle the juice”, bottle has verbal properties.

Counterexample

An expression naming an activity is not thereby a verb.

AT-MOR-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

语素(morpheme)Morpheme

定义
贡献语法意义或词汇意义的最小约定单位。
例子
英语reusability中的re-、use、-able和-ity作出可区分的贡献,这些贡献也在别的词中复现;组合产生了任何单个部分都不独自承载的意义。
反例与界限
音节或字母序列并不因为能被切分出来,就成为语素。table的声音和字母可以分段,但分出的部分并非各自都有约定意义。

译注:保留原例的英语词素写法;不能要求重拼后词干在每个词中完全不变。语素不是一个字母、一个音节或一个汉字的自动同义词;汉字与语素的常见对应有助分析,却不能被提升为没有例外的一一对应定律。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The smallest conventional unit that contributes grammatical or lexical meaning.

Example

In “reusability”, re-, use, -able, and -ity make distinguishable contributions that recur in other words; their combination produces a meaning that no single component carries alone.

Counterexample

A syllable or letter sequence is not a morpheme merely because it can be isolated. The sounds and letters of “table” can be divided, but the resulting pieces do not each carry a conventional meaning.

AT-088-008 · 定义与示例译稿

屈折变化(inflection)Inflection

定义
改变词形以标示语法特征,而不形成新的词位。
例子
在一种屈折丰富的语言中,限定词与形容词可以共同标示名词的数与格;它们的形式相互呼应,使句法联系显现。
反例与界限
英语teach—teacher或类似词对形成新词位,因而属于派生,而不是单纯的屈折变化。一个形式不变的词,即使没有显性的屈折标记,也可以承担语法功能。

译注:不把屈折有无当作语法复杂程度的总量表。Packard把某些现代汉语语法形式分析为inflectional affixes,这是所用模型的分类;与其他语法中的助词、体标记或数标记术语须逐项对照,不能直接移成英语式词尾范式。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The modification of a word form to indicate grammatical features without forming a new lexeme.

Example

In a richly inflecting language, determiner and adjective may jointly mark the number and case of a noun; their forms answer one another and expose syntactic cohesion.

Counterexample

“Teach – teacher” or comparable pairs create new lexemes and therefore involve derivation rather than simple inflection. An unchanged word may also carry grammatical function even when no overt inflection is present.

AT-103-007 · 定义与示例译稿

语素变体(allomorph)Allomorph

定义
同一个语素的几种语音或书写实现形式之一。
例子
英语复数在cats、dogs与horses中的发音不同;/s/、/z/和/ɪz/这几个变体,在不同语音环境中仍实现同一个复数语素。
反例与界限
两个同义词,除非是在可系统识别的环境中实现同一语素,否则不是语素变体。只有声音相同,也不能建立共同的形态单位。

译注:保留英语词形与音标;这不是汉语复数变化。书写变体须具有相应的形态分析依据,不能把任何两个异体字直接叫作语素变体;音位变体对应音位,本条对应语素。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

One of several phonetic or graphic realizations of the same morpheme.

Example

The English plural is pronounced differently in “cats,” “dogs,” and “horses.” The variants /s/, /z/, and /ɪz/ nevertheless realise the same plural morpheme in different sound environments.

Counterexample

Two synonymous words are not allomorphs unless they realise the same morpheme in systematically identifiable contexts. Identity of sound alone likewise establishes no shared morphological unit.

AT-088-006 · 定义与示例译稿

语素变体现象(allomorphy)Allomorphy

定义
一个语素在不同环境中出现不同形式的现象。
例子
某个复数语素在不同词干类别后有三种形式;选择可以预测,意义与范式功能则保持不变。
反例与界限
英语car与automobile在某些语境中可以指相似对象,却不是同一语素受环境制约的形式;这不属于语素变体现象。

译注:解释性标题区分一个具体变体与多个形式之间的关系。Packard关于汉语异形很少及不/没关系的判断按其分析框架理解,不当成所有汉语语言及形态理论的一致结论;本译稿不自行把不与没合并成一个语素。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The occurrence of different forms of a morpheme in different contexts.

Example

A plural morpheme has three forms after different stem classes; selection is predictable while meaning and paradigmatic function remain constant.

Counterexample

“Car” and “automobile” may denote similar objects in some contexts but are not context-conditioned forms of one morpheme. This is not allomorphy.

AT-MOR-W0088 · 定义与示例译稿

词缀(affix)Affix

定义
附着于词基、贡献语法或词汇意义的黏着形态成分。
例子
英语unclear中的前缀un-位于词基前;clarity中的后缀-ity形成名词。类似的贡献在许多别的词中复现。
反例与界限
英语clear能独立出现,因此不只是词缀。附着词虽然在语音上依赖别的单位,却可能有较大的句法独立性,并附着于短语而非特定词干。

译注:黏着不自动等于词缀,还可能涉及黏着词根或附着词。原例的clear/clarity也提示表面字形不必处处一致。汉语部件是词缀、词根还是其他单位,要检验能产性、位置、组合限制和功能,不能只看它写在词前还是词后。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A bound morphological element attached to a base and contributing grammatical or lexical meaning.

Example

In “unclear”, the prefix un- precedes the base; in “clarity”, the suffix -ity creates a noun. Comparable contributions recur across many other words.

Counterexample

“Clear” can occur independently and is therefore not merely an affix. A clitic is phonologically dependent but may possess greater syntactic independence and attach to a phrase rather than a selected word stem.

AT-NAV-G04-036 · 定义与示例译稿

前缀(prefix)Prefix

定义
位于词基前,并参与其形态结构的黏着成分。
例子
德语unklar中的un-在klar之前并改变其意义;但Unfall并不简单等于不是一次跌落。相同的开头字母,不能独自证明相同的前缀意义或同样能产的构词模式。
反例与界限
英语very clear中的独立词very,不是这个形容词的前缀。

译注:保留德语unklar/Unfall的反差。汉语一个成分经常出现在前面,还不足以证明它是前缀;自由词、词根、附着词和词缀须根据具体组合行为区分。古代重建的前缀也不能直接按现代书写位置去寻找。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A prefix is a bound element preceding a base and participating in its morphological structure.

Example

German unklar contains un- before klar, modifying its meaning. Unfall, by contrast, does not simply mean “not a fall”. Identical initial letters alone therefore establish neither the same prefix meaning nor an equally productive word-formation pattern.

Counterexample

The free word very in “very clear” is not a prefix of the adjective.

AT-NAV-G05-019 · 定义与示例译稿

后缀(suffix)Suffix

定义
跟在词基之后的黏着形态成分。
例子
德语Kind-er(儿童)中的-er参与复数构成;freund-lich(友好的)中的-lich形成形容词。
反例与界限
一个任意专名末尾出现-er这些字母,本身不能使它成为复数后缀。

译注:后置只是位置条件,不是完整的词缀证明。来源对汉语派生后缀和语法后缀采取特定分析;写成的、得、地或了的成分,也不能只凭外观或相近读音就合成同一个后缀。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A suffix is a bound morphological element that follows its base.

Example

In German Kind-er (“children”), -er contributes to plural formation; in freund-lich (“friendly”), -lich forms an adjective.

Counterexample

The letters -er at the end of an arbitrary proper name do not by themselves constitute a plural suffix.

AT-091-024 · 定义与示例译稿

附着词(clitic)Clitic

定义
一种具有类似词的句法属性、但在语音上依赖相邻宿主的语法成分。
例子
英语所有格’s可以出现在整个名词短语的边缘,例如the person next door’s bicycle;它的附着位置并不只是某个词汇词干。
反例与界限
某个派生音节只同选定词干组合并改变词类;即使它不重读,这种形态行为也更支持词缀分析,而不是附着词分析。

译注:修订稿的英文术语为Clitic,并不把句法自主性说成绝对的语法独立。英语’s及短语边缘的例子保留;不能仅凭不重读就把一个成分定为附着词,也不能把所有汉语助词自动归入此类。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A grammatical element with word-like syntactic properties that is phonologically dependent on a neighbouring host.

Example

English possessive ’s may occur at the edge of a whole noun phrase, as in “the person next door’s bicycle”; its attachment site is not simply one lexical stem.

Counterexample

A derivational syllable combines only with selected lexical stems and changes their word class. Even if unstressed, this morphological behaviour supports analysis as an affix rather than a clitic.

AT-133-006 · 定义与示例译稿

附着词化/附着(cliticisation)Cliticization

定义
一个语法上独立、语音上依赖的成分的形成或附着过程。
例子
某个代词性成分总处于短语第二位置,并在语音上依靠多种不同的前邻词;这种宽泛的宿主选择使它不同于普通后缀。
反例与界限
书写上的撇号不能证明附着词化,一个简短且不重读的词也不自动就是附着词。句法分布、宿主选择和语音依赖必须共同支持分析。

译注:区分共时的附着关系与历时的形成过程,标题因此保留两种读法。这个第二位置例未指明语言,不能写成汉语的一般规则;由自由词走向附着成分也不是每个短词都必经的历史路径。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The development or attachment of an element that is grammatically independent but phonologically dependent.

Example

A pronominal element always occupies the second position of a phrase and phonologically leans on many different preceding words. This promiscuous host selection distinguishes it from an ordinary suffix.

Counterexample

An orthographic apostrophe does not prove cliticisation, and a short unstressed word is not automatically a clitic. Syntactic distribution, host selection, and phonological dependence must converge.

AT-NAV-G05-024 · 定义与示例译稿

时态(tense)Tense

定义
相对于某个参照点,在时间上定位情境的语法范畴。
例子
德语Morgen fahre ich(我明天出发)把现在时形态与由morgen指明的未来时间指涉结合在一起。
反例与界限
表示未来时间的副词,本身不是一个语法时态词尾。

译注:保留德语的现在时形式,不把中文译义误当成同一种形态证据。时间指涉、时态形式与体视角分别处理;汉语可以通过多种手段解释事件时间,但这个事实不等于它必有同德语相同的时态范式。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Tense is a grammatical category locating situations in time relative to a reference point.

Example

German “Morgen fahre ich” (“I leave tomorrow”) combines present-tense morphology with future reference specified by morgen.

Counterexample

A future-time adverb is not itself a grammatical tense ending.

AT-SYN-W0142 · 定义与示例译稿

语法体(grammatical aspect)Grammatical aspect

定义
以语法方式呈现事件如何展开、被界定、反复、持续或完成。
例子
英语She read the report呈现一个过去事件;she was reading the report则打开其内部过程,使一个可能的中断点变得显著。
反例与界限
英语“She leaves tomorrow”虽使用现在时形式leaves,却由时间副词和语境获得将来指涉。这种时间定位本身,还不是把事件呈现为起始、持续或完成的体表达。时间指涉、时态形式与体应分开考察。

译注:修订稿明确区分时间指涉、时态形式和语法体。保留英语read/was reading的进行体对照;汉语的体标记与句末助词须在具体构式中辨认,不能凭了、过、正在等释义就宣称逐项等价。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The grammatical presentation of how an event unfolds, is bounded, repeated, ongoing, or completed.

Example

“She read the report” presents a past event, whereas “she was reading the report” opens its internal course and makes a possible point of interruption salient.

Counterexample

“She leaves tomorrow” receives future reference from the temporal adverbial and context although leaves is a present-tense form. That temporal location does not itself present the event as beginning, ongoing or completed. Temporal reference, tense form and aspect must therefore be examined separately.

AT-144-003 · 定义与示例译稿

数词分类词(numeral classifier)Numeral classifier

定义
计数时标明名词的单位或语义类别的语法成分。
例子
某种语言对同一张纸,既可以采用突出平面物的分类词,也可以采用突出文件实例的另一种分类词;数量不变,所采用的单位视角改变。
反例与界限
英语three red books中的red描述属性,却不是处于数词和名词之间、由语法选择的计数单位,所以不是数词分类词。

译注:采用解释性标题保留classifier,避免同中文量词这一更宽或不同的分类口径无条件合并。原纸张例未指明语言,本稿不把它当成已验证的汉语替换实验;分类词与度量词的区分及其例外在来源中本就存在争论。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A grammatical element that identifies a unit or semantic class of a noun when counting.

Example

A language counts the same sheet with one classifier for flat objects and another for instances of a document; quantity remains constant while the unit perspective changes.

Counterexample

In “three red books,” red describes a property but is not a grammatically selected counting unit between numeral and noun and therefore is not a numeral classifier.

AT-CORE-238-009 · 定义与示例译稿

构词(word formation)Word formation

定义
利用已有语言单位和模式形成新词。
例子
德语Sprachatlas由Sprache(语言)和Atlas(地图集)组合而成。这个复合词不是指语言恰好放在一本地图集旁边,而是提出一种可以约定俗成的表征类别。
反例与界限
英语house和houses通常是同一词位的不同形式,体现屈折变化,而不是形成新词。不加改变地借入一个外来词,也不因此就是一种构词过程。

译注:结构过程、借入行为和新词的社会地位分别讨论。保留德语Sprachatlas;中文语言地图集只是释义,不被用来证明同一种词内结构。Ceccagno讨论的汉语复合模式为比较材料,不是所有语言构词的唯一模型。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The creation of new words from existing linguistic units and patterns.

Example

German “Sprachatlas” combines “Sprache” and “Atlas.” The compound does not mean language merely placed beside an atlas but proposes a conventionalisable class of representation.

Counterexample

“House” and “houses” normally represent forms of one lexeme and illustrate inflection, not creation of a new word. Unchanged adoption of a foreign word is likewise not itself a word-formation process.

AT-DEP7-0007 · 定义与示例译稿

造词(word coinage;本条兼顾狭义用法)Word coinage

定义
为新出现、尚未命名或被重新注意到的经验,有意或自发地创造一个新表达。
例子
一位作者为新近觉察到的数字生活中的不适,创造一个带有拟声和类推成分的形式;读者开始使用它,并逐渐明确它的用法。
反例与界限
一个能产动词加上日常使用、完全规则的后缀,形成预期中的名词。这种新形成的词,并不一定属于狭义的造词。

译注:中文造词可以泛指新词形成;英文原深层说明另采用较窄口径,即形式不能仅由已有构词单位的规则组合解释。这里不把所有复合词、每次临时命名或每个社会新词都列为这一狭义过程;也不暗示作者创造时完全脱离已有语言资源。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The deliberate or spontaneous creation of a new expression for a new, unnamed or newly perceived experience.

Example

An author coins a partly imitative and analogical form for a newly noticed digital discomfort; readers adopt it and progressively specify its use.

Counterexample

A productive verb takes an entirely regular everyday suffix to form the expected noun. This new formation is not necessarily a coinage in the narrower sense.

AT-MOR-W0099 · 定义与示例译稿

新词/新用法(neologism)Neologism

定义
在某个言语社群中新形成或新近确立的表达。
例子
一个研究小组把小规模、可追溯的数据交接称作hash bridges(可释为哈希桥)。这个表达把技术上的绑定与通道联系起来,起初仍可被识别为有意创造的新说法。
反例与界限
一次性的打字错误,若未形成有意的形式和可识别的意义,就不是新词。一个旧词也不会因为某个人第一次听见它,就变成新词。

译注:按原深层说明把旧形式的新义也纳入;新颖性相对于时间、领域和社群。Packard在本书中把借词和缩略语排除于neologism之外,口径比本图谱窄,不照搬。书中2002/2013年的材料及所谓最近,不代表2026年的现时新词调查。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A newly formed or newly established expression within a speech community.

Example

A research group calls small, traceable data transfers “hash bridges.” The expression combines technical binding and passage, yet remains recognisable at first as a deliberate coinage.

Counterexample

A one-off typing error is not a neologism unless it develops intended form and recognisable meaning. An old word is not new merely because one individual hears it for the first time.

AT-134-030 · 定义与示例译稿

词汇化(lexicalization)Lexicalization

定义
某种构词结果或组合成为词汇中独立、约定俗成的单位的过程。
例子
一种原本形象鲜明的组合,几十年来主要用来命名某项特定制度性程序。较年轻的说话者把它作为固定名称理解,不再逐一激活各部分背后的旧有意象。
反例与界限
一个短语即使频繁出现,若意义仍完全可由组成部分推得、各部分也可不受特殊限制地替换,就未必已经词汇化。同样,单个词典收录某个表达,也不足以单独证明语言变化。

译注:原例是未指名词项的过程模型,不是新查实的几十年词史。汉语中缩略成分获得稳定意义可提供比较,但词汇化、语法化、惯用化和传播不因此成为同一个概念;来源中的词典收录不能独自证明起点和过程。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The process by which a word formation or combination is established as an independent conventional unit of vocabulary.

Example

An originally vivid combination is used for decades chiefly to name one institutional procedure. Younger speakers process it as a fixed designation without separately activating the older image behind its parts.

Counterexample

A frequent phrase is not necessarily lexicalized if its meaning remains fully compositional and its components can be exchanged without special restriction. Inclusion in a single dictionary likewise does not by itself demonstrate linguistic change.

AT-134-006 · 定义与示例译稿

逆构词/逆构法(back-formation)Back-formation

定义
把某个成分理解为派生标记,并通过所谓去掉这个标记形成较短的新形式。
例子
说话者把一个结构复杂的活动名词,分析成含有熟悉的名词后缀。通过所谓去掉这个后缀,他们造出一个新动词;随后,这个动词可以接受规则的屈折变化,并被能产地使用。
反例与界限
一个形式较短,不自动表明它来自逆构。如果它在历史上更早、是规则继承的形式,或只是没有形态重分析的缩略,就属于别的过程。

译注:逆构需要重分析及形成方向的证据,不能只从长短推断。Ceccagno所说的metacompounding明确是一种共时分析方法,不等于重建词的实际先后来源;汉语缩略所得成分也不能全部改称逆构。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The formation of a shorter form by the supposed removal of a derivational element.

Example

Speakers analyse a complex activity noun as containing a familiar nominal suffix. By supposedly removing it they create a new verb, which subsequently receives regular inflection and productive use.

Counterexample

A shorter form is not automatically a back-formation. If it is historically older, regularly inherited, or merely an abbreviation without morphological reanalysis, another process is involved.

AT-CORE-242-001 · 定义与示例译稿

缩略形式(abbreviation)Abbreviation

定义
一个词或词组在书写或图形上的缩短形式。
例子
一份报告首次出现artificial intelligence(人工智能)时,先写出全称,再引入AI。此后使用缩略形式,可以加快阅读,而不使新读者失去进入文本的线索。
反例与界限
因印刷错误而被截断的词,不是有功能的缩略形式。同一组首字母也可以对应多个全称,脱离语境不能把它唯一还原。

译注:短定义从书写说起,深层说明同时涉及独立读出的简称。汉语缩略可以选择有语义关联的语素/汉字,不必依照拉丁字母的字母名读出;因此保留AI原例,另在比较窗口讨论北大、影评等来源材料。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A shortened written or graphic form of a word or phrase.

Example

A report writes out “artificial intelligence” at first occurrence and introduces “AI.” Later, the abbreviation accelerates the text without closing access to new readers.

Counterexample

A word truncated by a printing error is not a functional abbreviation. The same initials may also represent several expansions and cannot be resolved uniquely without context.

AT-NAV-G02-005 · 定义与示例译稿

起首成分缩略词(acronym;本图谱采用词式读法)Acronym

定义
由多词名称的起首成分形成的缩略词。
例子
构造例:一个协会先取名Music and Speech,随后形成MAS,并把它作为一个词读出。这样符合本条采用的狭义工作定义。
反例与界限
如果把MAS逐个字母读作Em–Ay–Ess,本条工作定义就把它归为字母名逐读式缩略语(initialism)。事后才编出的全称,不能证明这个短形式最初的形成过程。

译注:短定义须与原深层说明联读:本条要求作为一个词读出。Packard在第225页还用acronym称保留起首语素的汉语简称,属于较宽且按不同单位操作的口径;不能把工农兵或所有汉字简称自动归入本条狭义类别。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Acronymic formations use initial elements of multiword names.

Example

Constructed: An association first calls itself “Music and Speech”, forms MAS and pronounces it as a word. It meets the narrow definition adopted here.

Counterexample

If MAS is spoken as Em–Ay–Ess, this working definition classifies it as an initialism. A retrospectively invented expansion does not establish the original formation.

AT-NAV-G02-041 · 定义与示例译稿

语言借用(borrowing)Borrowing

定义
把语言材料引入另一个言语社群的使用之中。
例子
在一个构造模型里,语言B从语言A借入luma这个词。如果B改为使用自己的词语复制其复合结构,就要检验另一种跨语言转移路径。
反例与界限
一个词现在看起来像外来形式,并不因此就是已经证实的借用。相似也可能出于共同继承或巧合。

译注:把形式、意义和结构模式分别记录,并区分直接来源与更深来源。来源的loanword一章明确采用宽口径;这里不据同一汉字串、近似读音或所谓外来感,单独判定具体词的来源。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Borrowing is the adoption of linguistic material into another speech community's usage.

Example

In a constructed model, language B adopts luma from language A. If B instead reproduces its compound structure with its own words, another transfer route must be considered.

Counterexample

A word that looks foreign is not thereby an established borrowing. Similarity may reflect shared inheritance or coincidence.

AT-CORE-238-047 · 定义与示例译稿

借词/外来词(loanword)Loanword

定义
从另一种语言借入,并融入本地使用的词。
例子
一个技术词起初以外语读音使用,后来接受本地语言的复数形式,最后发展出比来源语言更窄的专业意义。
反例与界限
一位双语者偶然使用一次外语词,立即又切换回来,而这个词未在社群中整合。一次孤立的语码转换,还不是已经确立的借词。

译注:原例包含复数形式,是一种跨语言过程模型,不是汉语借词必须经历的步骤。汉语借词可以在声音、书写、意义、词类和搭配上重新组织;本条突出借入后的使用整合,来源章的外来词则覆盖更宽的转移类型。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A word borrowed from another language and integrated into local usage.

Example

A technical term first appears with foreign pronunciation, later takes a native plural, and finally develops a narrower specialist meaning than it has in the donor language.

Counterexample

A bilingual speaker uses a foreign word once and immediately switches back without communal integration. An isolated code-switch is not yet an established loanword.

AT-119-042 · 定义与示例译稿

仿译/结构借译(calque)Calque

定义
用接受语言自己的词汇材料,重新构成一个外语表达。
例子
一个言语社群采用某个新技术概念的内部结构,却用自己的词分别翻译每个部分。形成的复合词听起来属于本地语言,但带着来自别处的构造蓝图。
反例与界限
两种语言可能独立形成同样透明的表达,因此形式平行本身不能证明仿译。如果缺少接触与年代证据,来源判断必须明确保留为假设。

译注:依原深层说明要求复制内部结构,不把一切意译、解释性命名或巧合的逐字对应都叫仿译。Miao以semantic loans统摄意译时,也把仿译纳入;这里保留本条与旧词借义的区别。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The recreation of a foreign-language expression using one’s own lexical material.

Example

A speech community adopts the structure of a new technical term but translates every component into local words. The resulting compound sounds native while carrying a foreign design.

Counterexample

Two languages may independently form the same transparent expression, so formal parallelism alone proves no calque. Without evidence of contact and chronology, origin must remain explicitly hypothetical.

AT-ETY-W0278 · 定义与示例译稿

借义(semantic loan;旧词增添外来义)Semantic loan

定义
一个已有词受到另一种语言中对应词的影响,取得一个附加意义。
例子
某个社群原已有一个表示动物鼠的本地词。在外语计算机术语的影响下,同一形式后来也用来表示输入设备。
反例与界限
直接借词把外语表达形式本身引入。没有可证明的语言接触而偶然平行发生的意义变化,也不能算已经证实的借义。

译注:动物鼠例保持未指名社群,不把鼠标一词的具体形成史当作已经验证的同一案例。本条的semantic loan限于旧形式增加受外语影响的新义;Miao第568页却把新形成的意译词也包括在这个英文标签内,二者须对照而非合并。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The adoption of an additional meaning for an existing word under the influence of a corresponding word in another language.

Example

A community already has a native word meaning the animal “mouse.” Under influence from a foreign computing term, the same native form later comes to denote an input device.

Counterexample

A direct loanword imports the foreign expression itself. Accidentally parallel semantic development without demonstrable contact is likewise not a securely established semantic loan.

AT-DEP2-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

借入材料或模式参与的构词(loanword formation)Loanword formation

定义
使用借入的语言材料,或依照另一种语言的模式形成新词。
例子
一个专业社群把已经整合的外来词干与能产的本地后缀结合,形成新的职业名称。语料证据随后显示,还出现了更多类似构词。
反例与界限
一个借词后来接受屈折变化,并不单凭这一点就成为本条所说的构词。若没有历史接触证据,也不能自动把相似结构归因于外来构词模式。

译注:采用解释性标题,暂不宣称这是中文研究中已统一的单一术语。一个完成形式的借入与借入成分的继续能产分别判断;咖在来源讨论的奶咖等词中的重新分析,可供比较,但不能取代每个词的实际形成史。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Formation of new words with borrowed linguistic material or according to a pattern from another language.

Example

A specialist community combines an already integrated foreign stem with a productive native suffix to create a new occupational label. Corpus evidence then shows further analogous formations.

Counterexample

A loanword does not become loanword formation merely because it later inflects. A similar structure must not be attributed to a foreign pattern without historical evidence of contact.

AT-CORE-243-018 · 定义与示例译稿

混合构词(Mischbildung/hybrid formation)Hybrid formation

定义
由来自不同语言或形态传统的成分形成的词。
例子
一个跨语际流通的数字领域词干,在某个言语社群中经常与本地后缀结合;由此形成的新动词按本地规则屈折。
反例与界限
一个整词借入、内部未重新组合的词,可以是借词,却不是混合构词。只有成分看起来像外来形式,而无不同来源,也不足以证明混合。

译注:本条与Hybridbildung(AT-DEP2-0008)广泛重合;两个既有ID保留,并作相互参照,不据此制造两种机制的本质区别。例子中的本地屈折是未指名语言的模型,不是对汉语动词的一般要求;混合构词也不直接等同语码转换或截拼。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A word formation whose components derive from different languages or morphological traditions.

Example

A digitally circulating international stem combines regularly with a native suffix in one speech community, and the resulting verbs take the language’s ordinary inflection.

Counterexample

A wholly borrowed word that has not been internally recombined is a loanword but not a hybrid formation. Merely foreign-looking elements without distinct origins are likewise insufficient.

AT-DEP2-0008 · 定义与示例译稿

混合构词(Hybridbildung/hybrid formation)Hybrid formation

定义
由来自不同语言或构词传统的成分形成的词。
例子
德语Downloadbereich把一个英语来源的词干与德语复合成分结合起来。这些资源共同形成一个可按接受语言规则使用的名称。
反例与界限
一个整词借入的单纯词,并不只因来自别的语言就成为混合构词。同一词汇单位内部,必须存在不同来源成分的组合。

译注:本条与Mischbildung(AT-CORE-243-018)广泛重合,两个ID保留并作相互参照,不假称两个中文术语对应两种机制。Miao的hybrid loans与本图谱较广的hybrid formation仍须区分;字母与汉字并用本身也不能证明成分来源不同。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A word formation whose components come from different languages or formative traditions.

Example

German “Downloadbereich” combines an English-derived stem with a German compound element. Both resources form a regular usable designation in the receiving language.

Counterexample

A wholly borrowed simplex is not a hybrid formation merely because it came from another language. Internal combination of components from different origins is required within the lexical unit.

AT-DEP4-0005 · 定义与示例译稿

外来词使用争议(debate about loanwords)Debate about loanwords

定义
围绕借入词究竟是丰富语言、满足需要、追随时尚还是威胁语言而展开的公共争论。
例子
一所大学讨论表格中是否应保留deadline、换成submission date,或在首次出现时加以说明,并在决定前收集理解情况的数据。
反例与界限
一条词源注释指出,英语window源于古诺尔斯语。如果没有规范性评价或公共争论,这个历史事实本身不是关于外来词的争议。

译注:保留英语版本的用词讨论,不假称submission date是德语deadline的替代词。window的来源另与Merriam-Webster词源栏核对;不据此添加独立首见年代。Miao关于标准化的论述是该作者的讨论与建议,不是本稿宣称的当前政策或对所有汉语社群的价值排序。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Public debate over whether borrowed words enrich, serve, fashion or threaten a language.

Example

A university debates whether “deadline” should remain in forms, be replaced by “submission date,” or be explained at first mention, and gathers comprehension data before deciding.

Counterexample

An etymological note observes that English “window” derives from Old Norse. Without normative or public disagreement, this historical fact is not a debate about loanwords.

AT-103-010 · 定义与示例译稿

词汇空缺(lexical gap)Lexical gap

定义
一个原则上可以表达的概念,没有约定俗成的单个词来命名。
例子
原图谱的德语例子中,说话者采用我的兄弟或姐妹的孩子这一迂说,因为被讨论的标准德语用法没有一个广泛使用、性别中立的单词来表示该关系;迂说仍完整保留意义。
反例与界限
一个人不知道专业词avunculate(舅权或舅甥关系制度),并不能证明词汇空缺。只有系统考察相关语言变体,才能判断是否缺少约定俗成的表达。

译注:这个德语亲属称谓例作为原图谱的限定性判断保留,本轮未对德语所有词典、方言与语料作新的穷尽检查;不能把标准/常用/性别中立这些条件删掉。更不能从缺少一个词,推断缺少这种经验、无法思考或不可能翻译。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The absence of an established single word for a concept that can, in principle, be expressed.

Example

A German speaker says “the child of my brother or sister” because Standard German lacks a widely used gender-neutral single word for that relation; the paraphrase nevertheless keeps the meaning accessible.

Counterexample

A speaker's ignorance of the specialist term “avunculate” does not establish a lexical gap. Only systematic examination of the relevant language variety can show that an established expression is absent.

AT-CORE-238-020 · 定义与示例译稿

固定表达/熟语性单位(phraseological unit)Phraseological unit

定义
由多个词构成、形式与意义相对固定并已约定俗成的表达。
例子
英语pick up the thread可以表示在讨论中接续先前的思路;作者把它改成reweave the lost thread(把丢失的线索重新织起来),使原本储存的模式显现并得到更新。
反例与界限
a new blue notebook(一本新的蓝色笔记本)在一个句子中可以理解,但组成自由、各部分容易替换。若没有可证明的固定性或约定功能,它就不属于固定表达。

译注:保留英语thread的线与思路线索关系,中文说明其作用。本条在原深层说明中是较宽的领域,包括不同程度的惯用性和交际功能;不能不加区分地译成成语。熟语、惯用语、搭配等中文分类须说明采用哪套口径。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A multiword, relatively fixed expression with conventionalised form and meaning.

Example

The expression “pick up the thread” can mean resuming an earlier idea in discussion; a writer changes it to “reweave the lost thread”, exposing and renewing the stored pattern.

Counterexample

The phrase “a new blue notebook” is intelligible in one sentence but freely composed and readily replaceable. Without demonstrable fixedness or conventional function, it is not a phraseological unit.

AT-CORE-238-024 · 定义与示例译稿

谚语(proverb)Proverb

定义
流传下来的简练说法,用来表述一般化的经验或规则。
例子
面对Many roads lead to the destination(许多道路通向目的地),一位规划者回应:But not every road is accessible(但并不是每条路都无障碍)。这个谚语式说法提出一般规则,而当下的反驳限制并细化了它。
反例与界限
某个人独自写出的智慧短句只被引用一次,尚未经过社群传承,也未成为可识别的固定单位。它可以是警句,却还不是谚语。

译注:原英语版本是对德语例子的表达性改写;这里不把所列英语句子当成已另经语料证明的传统英语谚语。谚语在具体使用中可被赞同、反驳或讽刺;它的流传并不保证命题正确,也不能直接代表所有中国人的共同信念。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A traditional concise saying that formulates a generalised experience or rule.

Example

To “Many roads lead to the destination”, a planner replies, “But not every road is accessible.” The proverb offers a rule that present counter-speech limits and specifies.

Counterexample

An individually composed wise sentence is quoted once but is neither communally transmitted nor recognisable as a fixed unit. It may be an aphorism, but it is not yet a proverb.

AT-DEP1-0010 · 定义与示例译稿

惯用化/习语化(idiomatization)Idiomatization

定义
自由组合逐渐成为固定单位、已不能完全按字面解释的过程。
例子
某个社群越来越多地用open a door(打开一扇门)表示使新的视角成为可能;即使语境中没有实际的门,这一读法也可以被识别出来。
反例与界限
read a new book(读一本新书)的形容词、宾语和动词可以规则地替换,意义可由各部分推得。一个组合即使频繁出现,只要仍可自由生成,也不因此已经惯用化。

译注:这是形成过程,不是成语目录的名称。原例展示一种过程模型,未提供某个词组的实际年代序列。意义不透明、形式固定、句法限制和出现频率是不同指标,不能用一个代替全部,也不能只凭现代成语故事倒推出完整惯用化史。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The process by which a free combination becomes a fixed unit no longer fully interpretable literally.

Example

A community increasingly uses “open a door” for enabling new perspectives; the reading becomes recognisable even where no physical door is relevant to the context.

Counterexample

“Read a new book” permits regular substitution of adjective, object, and verb, and its meaning is derivable from its parts. A frequent but freely productive combination is not thereby idiomatized.

AT-091-034 · 定义与示例译稿

词语搭配(collocation)Collocation

定义
在统计上或语言惯例中受到偏好的典型词语组合。
例子
原例设定某个语料库强烈偏好heavy rain(大雨),而weighty rain虽然语法上可以设想,却不是惯常搭配。学习者把前一组合当作典型词语伙伴关系来习得。
反例与界限
green folder(绿色文件夹)出现一次,不能证明搭配关系。仅因一个狭窄主题而共同出现的词,也需要同其他语境中的分布比较。

译注:保留英语的词汇选择,不能用中文大雨的字面结构替换证据。本稿没有新运行原例所说的语料统计,所以明确保留为示范设定。Jiao把惯用语译为collocations是其分类口径,不等于所有统计意义的词语搭配都是该中文类别。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A typical, statistically or conventionally preferred combination of words.

Example

A corpus strongly prefers “heavy rain,” while “weighty rain” is grammatically imaginable but non-idiomatic. Learners acquire the preferred pairing as a typical lexical partnership.

Counterexample

One occurrence of “green folder” does not establish a collocation. Words that co-occur only because of a narrow topic also require comparison with their distribution in other contexts.

AT-DEP4-0004 · 定义与示例译稿

程式化语言(formulaic language)Formulaic language

定义
使用预先形成、作为可识别单位储存并调用的多词序列。
例子
说话者用Let me conclude by saying(最后,请允许我指出)启动熟悉的收束动作;听众接下来期待的是归纳,而不是一条全新的论证路线。
反例与界限
green lamp beside paper(纸旁的绿色灯)这一偶然出现的序列可以合乎语法,但如果没有反复调用的单位地位或约定功能,就不是程式化的多词单位。

译注:程式化不等于没有思考,也不是数学公式语言。中文这里为功能说明,不宣称所有表达都以完全不可分的整体方式加工;固定程度、可变部分与个体加工证据仍要分别检查。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The use of prefabricated multiword sequences stored and deployed as recognisable units.

Example

With “Let me conclude by saying,” a speaker opens a familiar closing move; the audience expects condensation rather than an entirely new line of proof.

Counterexample

The one-off sequence “green lamp beside paper” may be grammatical, but without recurrent storage or conventional function it is not a formulaic multiword unit.

AT-RES6-0010 · 定义与示例译稿

交际套语/情境惯用语(routine formula)Routine formula

定义
在反复出现的情境中,完成可预期社会行动的约定表达。
例子
编辑用Thank you for bringing this to our attention(感谢您提醒我们注意这一点)确认收到报告,并开启可预期的处理步骤;再补上一句具体说明,可以避免套语显得空泛。
反例与界限
The train leaves at eight(火车八点出发)这样的事实句即使经常重复,也不一定完成约定的社会行动。出现频率本身不能造就交际套语。

译注:固定表达与具体交际行动分别判断;感谢、致歉等套语是否真诚、冷淡或带讽刺,要看关系、时机和语调。不能从反复使用就推断陈词滥调,也不能把本条直接等同文化礼仪整体。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A conventionalised expression that performs an expected social action in recurring situations.

Example

With “Thank you for bringing this to our attention”, editors acknowledge a report and open an expected process; a concrete additional sentence prevents the formula from sounding empty.

Counterexample

A frequently repeated factual sentence such as “The train leaves at eight” does not necessarily perform a conventional social action. Frequency alone does not create a routine formula.

AT-CORE-238-028 · 定义与示例译稿

引语/直接引用(quotation)Quotation

定义
把别人的或较早的言语,有标记地纳入一个新语境。
例子
一份报告保留The mapping remains provisional(该映射仍属暂定)这一句,注明页码和版本,并解释后来的研究确认了这项限定,而不是取消了它。
反例与界限
作者用自己的话重述来源,并正确标明这是转述。即使借用了思想,只要没有声称再现原有措辞,就不是直接引用。

译注:原措辞、节选范围、版本、译文与新语境分别记录。中文括注是译义,不冒充英语原句。古籍中的发言者、后世通常归名的作者与现代引述者也不能混为一人;本轮比较中对一个论语说话者归属作了原典转录核对。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The marked incorporation of another or earlier utterance into a new context.

Example

A report retains the sentence “The mapping remains provisional”, gives page and version, and explains that the later study confirms rather than removes this qualification.

Counterexample

An author restates a source in her own words and correctly marks it as paraphrase. Although the idea is borrowed, no direct quotation occurs without a claim to reproduce wording.

AT-RHE-W0002 · 定义与示例译稿

暗引/暗示性指涉(allusion)Allusion

定义
间接指向另一文本、事件、人物或文化模式,并依赖读者的识别。
例子
一篇关于某个项目反复重启的报道,题为Waiting for the final act(等待最后一幕)。按原例说明,这一表述含蓄唤起戏剧中的延宕,却没有点名某一部戏。
反例与界限
有完整来源信息的指引是明确引用,而不是典型暗引。两种常见表达仅仅相似,如果没有支持信号,也不能确立暗引。

译注:原英语例子并未提供可唯一识别的特定文本,因此这里只保留其较宽的戏剧性文化联想,不擅自补成等待戈多等具体来源。暗引不全都是中国古典用典;用典可作为比较,但不是本条全部范围。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

An indirect reference that relies on recognition of another text, event, figure, or cultural pattern.

Example

A report on a project that repeatedly restarts is titled “Waiting for the final act.” Its phrasing quietly invokes theatrical delay without naming any particular play.

Counterexample

A fully documented source reference is explicit citation rather than a typical allusion. Mere resemblance between two common phrases also does not establish allusion without supporting signals.

AT-RES6-0007 · 定义与示例译稿

互文性(intertextuality)Intertextuality

定义
文本吸收、改写、引用其他文本,或把它们作为文化记忆预设在内的关系网络。
例子
一篇当代游记以In the beginning was the path(起初有路)开头。熟悉的句式被唤回,而一个词的替换,把创世转成行进与旅行。
反例与界限
两篇游记并不只因都描写旅行起点,就构成已经证明的互文关系。若缺少独特形式、结构或可信的传播联系,一般主题相似仍然太弱。

译注:原英语深层说明把这个句式同圣经表述联系起来;这里保留英语形式,起初有路仅为译义,不声称它同某一中文圣经译本逐字对应。互文也不要求每个关系都来自作者有意引用,接受中的联系与可证明的来源使用须分开。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A relational field in which a text absorbs, transforms, quotes or presupposes other texts as cultural memory.

Example

A contemporary travel account opens, “In the beginning was the path.” A familiar sentence pattern is recalled, while one substituted word converts creation into movement and journey.

Counterexample

Two travel narratives do not become intertextual merely because both describe the start of a journey. General thematic resemblance without distinctive form, structure, or plausible transmission is too weak.

AT-METZ5-0009 · 定义与示例译稿

文字游戏/语词游戏(wordplay)Wordplay

定义
有意利用词的多义、声音相似或形式关系,产生表达效果的手法。
例子
This map has many sides(这张地图有许多面)既可唤起纸张的表面,也可指地图集提供的多种视角,使两种意义相互评论。
反例与界限
The atlas contains many concepts(图谱包含许多概念)有多个词,却没有因形式或多义而开启第二种读法。只有含混、没有形成可感关系,也不是成功的文字游戏。

译注:多面关系在中文释义中可以提示,但不保证同英语sides具有完全相同的词汇分布。汉语语词游戏还可利用汉字替换、同音近音、切分和熟语变式;不能把所有机制缩成谐音一种,也不必都为了逗笑。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A device productively exploiting ambiguity, sound similarity or formal relations between words.

Example

“This map has many sides” may evoke both the surfaces of a sheet and the different perspectives offered by an atlas, allowing the meanings to comment on each other.

Counterexample

The sentence “The atlas contains many concepts” has several words but no second reading opened by form or ambiguity. Mere obscurity without a shaped relation is not successful wordplay either.

AT-119-004 · 定义与示例译稿

近音词并置(paronomasia)Paronomasia

定义
把声音相似、意义不同的词联系起来。
例子
策展人把一个理由不足的趋势称作not progress but a process of merely passing by(不是进步,而只是经过的过程);按原英语例子,声音上的呼应把词语拉近,而意义反差质疑它宣称的方向。
反例与界限
普通尾韵并不自动成为近音词并置,如果各词意义没有被带入关系。同一词形在重复中改变意义,则更宜具体归入换义反复(antanaclasis)。

译注:英语例子对德语Fortschritt/Fort-Schritt作了改写,progress/process的关系并非原德语拆词的逐项复制。中文这里只说明原例,不另造看似等效的谐音。近音可以包括并不完全同音的词;相近读音既不证明共同词源,也不要求普通话声调相同。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The combination of words that sound similar but have different meanings.

Example

The curator calls the poorly justified trend not progress but a process of merely passing by: the sound pattern draws the phrases together while their meanings challenge the claimed direction.

Counterexample

Ordinary end rhyme is not automatically paronomasia when the meanings are not brought into relation. Repetition of the same word form with a change of sense is more precisely classified as antanaclasis.

AT-METZ4-0003 · 定义与示例译稿

戏仿/仿拟(parody)Parody

定义
对可识别的风格或作品作模仿性的改写,从而产生喜剧、批判或反思效果。
例子
一篇研究摘要以Once upon a time, a hypothesis set out to find its significance(从前,有一个假设,出发去寻找它的显著性)开头,把童话形式移入科研惯例,显露其中潜在的戏剧组织。
反例与界限
一份对小说的事实性摘要可以提到相同内容,却不采用、改写其独特形式。仅仅提及某部作品,还不足以构成戏仿。

译注:本修订稿的英文definition字段已经改为英语,中文定义可与该英语定义核对。旧版本按德语字段翻译的记录保留在版本历史中,不倒改其来源说明。成语换字只是可能相关的仿拟手段,不自动构成对作品、体裁或风格的戏仿;戏仿也不必敌视原作。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Imitative transformation of a recognisable style or work with a comic, critical or reflective effect.

Example

A research abstract begins, “Once upon a time, a hypothesis set out to find its significance,” transferring fairy-tale form to scientific routine and exposing its implicit drama.

Counterexample

A factual summary of a novel may mention the same content but neither adopts nor transforms its characteristic form. Reference to a work alone does not constitute parody.

AT-METZ5-0002 · 定义与示例译稿

格言式通则(maxim/Sentenz)Maxim

定义
以简练方式表述一般性判断,并声称具有经验或实践智慧。
例子
Whoever conceals every uncertainty prevents its examination(凡掩藏每一处不确定性的人,也阻止了对它的检验)。句子从具体工作流程中提取观察,把它作为一般性的方法警示提出。
反例与界限
The meeting was postponed today(今天会议延期)是具体报告,不是格言式通则。一条简短广告语也不会只因措辞简练,就成为基于经验的一般性判断。

译注:解释性标题对应原德语Sentenz及英文Maxim,暂不宣称与所有中文格言、箴言、名言类别逐项重合。一般化提供方向,也可能遮住适用条件;这个原例是图谱的构造句,不应署名给某位古代思想家。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A concise generalising statement claiming experiential or practical wisdom.

Example

“Whoever conceals every uncertainty prevents its examination.” The sentence lifts an observation from individual workflows and offers it as a general methodological warning.

Counterexample

“The meeting was postponed today” is a particular report, not a maxim. A short advertising slogan likewise does not become an experience-based general statement merely through brevity.

AT-RES6-0001 · 定义与示例译稿

警句式短思(aphorism)Aphorism

定义
简短而相对独立的思想,通过凝缩、断裂或出人意料的联系,激发继续思考。
例子
A map becomes inaccurate when it claims to have no standpoint(地图一旦声称自己没有立场,就变得不准确)。句子把空间准确性与认识上的视角联系起来,要求重新检验两个概念。
反例与界限
一句简短的励志话,如果只是悦耳地重复现成套话,并不自动成为警句式短思。只有令人费解的晦涩、没有能展开的概念张力,也不够。

译注:采用解释性标题保留aphorism,不把中文警句的所有用法都定义为同一文类。与格言、谚语有交叉,但这里突出可继续展开的思想张力,而不要求普遍正确或民间传承;原地图句是图谱示范,不作历史名言。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A concise, self-contained thought that provokes further reflection through compression, rupture or an unexpected connection.

Example

“A map becomes inaccurate when it claims to have no standpoint.” The sentence connects spatial accuracy with epistemic perspective and demands renewed examination of both concepts.

Counterexample

A short inspirational slogan is not automatically an aphorism when it pleasantly repeats a finished commonplace. Enigmatic obscurity without productive conceptual tension is likewise insufficient.

AT-CORE-239-028 · 定义与示例译稿

陈词套语/陈套观念(cliché)Cliché

定义
因模式化反复而磨损的说法或观念。
例子
一篇人物特写把每个不随主流的研究者都称为a lone voice against the establishment(反抗建制的孤独声音)。这个套式替代了对其真实关系网络与论证的考察。
反例与界限
一条专业公式或固定说法,不会只因反复出现就成为陈词套语;只要定义精确,并能在具体情境中可靠地区分重要差异,重复仍可有用。

译注:是否陈套取决于使用是否处理具体差异,不是单纯统计频率。成语、交际套语或谚语可以被陈套地使用,却不因属于固定表达就必然空洞;某一社群觉得陈旧的形式,在另一社群也可能仍然新鲜。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A worn, schematically repeated formulation or idea.

Example

A portrait calls every nonconforming researcher “a lone voice against the establishment.” The formula replaces examination of her actual networks and arguments.

Counterexample

A frequent technical formula is not a cliché merely because it recurs, provided it is precisely defined and reliably identifies relevant differences in the case at hand.

AT-CORE-239-019 · 定义与示例译稿

共有论题/常用论题(commonplace;修辞意义)Commonplace

定义
可以普遍取用、在多种论述中反复展开的思想或论题。
例子
关于无常的共有论题,在纪念致辞中不只可以表达失落,还能开启问题:哪些行动与记忆会在一个生命结束后继续发生作用?
反例与界限
Everything will work out in the end(最终一切都会好起来)在没有理由、也不联系具体冲突的情况下被重复。这更像空泛套话,而不是有成效地展开一个修辞论题。

译注:本条按原深层说明区分修辞中的共有资源与日常用语中的陈词滥调,不用一个中文贬义词抹去前一意义。它也不是常识、所有人的实际信念或总有道理的道德规则;泛论题是否有用,要看具体展开。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A generally available idea or topos reused across many discourses.

Example

The commonplace of transience can do more in a memorial speech than name loss: it may open the question of which actions and memories continue beyond a life.

Counterexample

“Everything will work out in the end” is repeated without reasons or relation to the particular conflict. This is a platitude rather than productive development of a rhetorical place.

AT-CORE-238-031 · 定义与示例译稿

论证部分(argumentatio)Argumentatio

定义
古典修辞篇章安排中承担证明与反驳的主体部分。
例子
在介绍一个建设方案后,演讲者先后安排成本比较、安全数据和一项有关遗产保护的异议,再为自己偏好的方案提出理由。
反例与界限
开场只宣布:支持这一点的理由很多。如果尚未展开理由,并把它们联系到争议问题,就还没有完成充分的论证部分。

译注:保留拉丁术语,指特定修辞传统中的部分或功能领域,不把它等同一般论证或某种放诸四海的固定段落。本例是示范,不是已记录的历史演讲。有关听众、次序与反驳的中文比较,不证明两套传统有同一篇章制度。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The proving and refuting main section of classical rhetorical arrangement.

Example

After describing a building proposal, a speaker orders cost comparisons, safety data, and an objection concerning heritage protection before defending the preferred option.

Counterexample

An introduction merely announces, “There are many reasons for this.” Until those reasons are developed and related to the disputed issue, no full argumentatio has been presented.

AT-METZ5-0006 · 定义与示例译稿

论题/可再展开的论证资源(topos)Topos

定义
文化中可供取用的思考或论证之场,可以从中发展反复出现的判断。
例子
一篇气候演说改写国家之船这一论题:不是一位舵手,而是多组船员共同维持一艘漏水、彼此共乘的船。
反例与界限
两篇文章都提到花园,并不因此就具有共同的topos。必须有反复出现的文化功能或论证结构,才使这种相似具有分析意义。

译注:解释性标题保留topos。原深层说明同时涉及寻找论据的模式与文化、文学传统中的意象或陈述资源;不能只译成谈论的话题,也不能假称它与中文某个古典分类完全同一。国家之船是原例的修辞资源,未在这里重建其最早来源。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A culturally available place of thought or argument from which recurring claims are developed.

Example

A climate speech varies the topos of the ship of state: instead of one helmsman, many crews must sustain a leaking vessel they share.

Counterexample

Two texts do not share a topos merely because both mention a garden. A recurrent cultural function or argumentative structure must make the resemblance significant.

AT-OXD-0004 · 定义与示例译稿

论据与材料的发现(inventio)Invention

定义
系统地寻找、选择可能的论据与材料,往往借助topoi等搜索模式。
例子
为一座新图书馆准备演说时,不先写标语,而是先把效益、成本、历史案例、受影响群体、替代方案与可能的异议,作为搜索领域逐一展开。
反例与界限
脱离任务与批判检验的自由联想,还不等于修辞中的inventio。一项捏造的断言,也不会只因能支持想要的结果,就成为正当材料。

译注:英文invention在此不是技术发明,更不是发明事实。发现候选材料不等于已有有效论证;发现与安排可以在写作中反复互动,不是心理上严格分离的先后五阶段。原深层说明另有草图、组合术等比较,本轮不把它们作为已新核实的中国历史来翻译。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The systematic discovery and selection of possible arguments and material, often with the aid of topoi.

Example

For a speech about a new library, slogans are not written first. Benefits, costs, historical examples, affected groups, alternatives, and likely objections are initially explored as fields of search.

Counterexample

Free association without relation to a task or critical testing is not yet rhetorical invention. A fabricated claim is likewise not legitimate material merely because it would support a desired result.

AT-ADD-20261015-0026 · 定义与示例译稿

修辞性篇章安排(dispositio)Dispositio (rhetorical arrangement)

定义
把已有材料与论据安排成一个整体,使之回应具体的交际情境。
例子
一份虚构事故报告先说错过期限,再解释原因,最后提出补救。修订稿改为先说补救。编辑要问:这种改写帮助读者定位,还是掩盖尚未解决的损害?答案取决于读者与报告应承担的责任。
反例与界限
新顺序不能只凭新颖就为难以理解辩护。如果两个版本连词语或证据也不同,就不能把效果全部归于顺序。按时间排列是一种组织原则,不是公正的保证。

译注:中文章法或布局可提供比较,但不自动同古典拉丁dispositio逐项对应。来源把先概括后细节、先细节后概括作为不同安排;这不等于演绎与归纳的逻辑有效性。保留原例的虚构性质与开放判断,不给出唯一正确写法。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Dispositio is the rhetorical arrangement of available material and arguments into a whole responsive to a particular communicative situation.

Example

An invented incident report starts with a missed deadline, explains the causes and ends with a remedy. A revised version begins with the remedy. Editors ask whether the revision helps orientation or hides the unresolved harm. There is no single preferred answer independent of the report's audience and obligations.

Counterexample

A new order cannot justify incomprehensibility merely by claiming originality. A purported order effect is also confounded if the versions differ in vocabulary or evidence. Chronology is a possible organising principle, not a guarantee of fairness.

AT-RHE-209-001 · 定义与示例译稿

例证(exemplum;修辞性个案)Exemplum

定义
引入过去的行为或言语,常附带具名权威,用来阐明、增加可信性或支持某项判断。
例子
早期设计失败后,一位制图者保留了被放弃的线条。这个案例说明:记录下来的弯路,日后可能打开新的发现路径。
反例与界限
没有具体个案的一般断言,不是例证。轶事的相关条件若同当前待判断的情境不可比,就不会因生动而成为可靠证据。

译注:原例未提供真实人物、文献或年代,按示范性个案保留,不声称它是新发现的历史事实。用一个故事说明可能性,与据此证明一般规律不同;具名权威、可比性和证据质量也要分别检验。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The citation of a past deed or saying, often with a named authority, to illustrate, render plausible, or support a claim.

Example

When an early design failed, a cartographer preserved its discarded lines. The case illustrates how documented wrong turns can later open paths of discovery.

Counterexample

A general claim without a particular case is not an exemplum. An anecdote does not become reliable evidence when its relevant conditions are not comparable with the situation under judgement.

AT-CORE-238-002 · 定义与示例译稿

言说中呈现的可信品格(ethos)Ethos

定义
一个人或一种声音在言说中呈现的可信性与立场姿态。
例子
我在直接承担责任时了解过这一风险;不过,在两点上,我的经验不足。知识与承认自身限度,共同形成负责任判断的ethos。
反例与界限
学术头衔或良好名声,不保证在某次具体发言中具有有说服力的ethos。反过来,看起来可信的表现,也不能证明所提出命题为真。

译注:解释性名称突出言说中的呈现,不把ethos直接缩成道德好坏或名人权威。中文诚信、德等历史材料只作为比较;同意某人、喜欢某人、认为某人有知识与证明其主张为真并非同一判断。原深层说明中的希腊价值史与组织声音窗口未在本轮全译或作新的原典核查。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The credibility and disposition of a person or voice as manifested in speech.

Example

“I know this risk from direct responsibility; on two points, however, my experience is insufficient.” Knowledge and an acknowledged limit jointly form an ethos of responsible judgement.

Counterexample

An academic title or favourable reputation does not guarantee persuasive ethos in a particular speech. Conversely, a credible performance does not establish the truth of the proposition advanced.

AT-CORE-238-005 · 定义与示例译稿

情感诉求/情感动势(pathos)Pathos

定义
话语唤起、组织或增强情感的力量。
例子
一位医生不只给出可预防感染的数量,还描写一个孩子在家庭餐桌旁留下的空椅子。个体命运使抽象后果变得可以感受。
反例与界限
声音大或泪流满面的发言,若手段同所论问题无关,并不因此就有效地形成pathos。反过来,安静而准确的描述也可能具有强烈情感力量。

译注:这是修辞作用的示范,不是医学个案、感染数据或医疗建议。Pathos不必贬义地等于煽情,也不是讲者内心感受的简单外露;它可以使重要性可感,却不能独自证明因果或数量。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The affective force of discourse by which emotions are addressed, organised, or intensified.

Example

A physician gives not only the number of preventable infections but describes a child’s empty chair at the family table. The individual fate makes an abstract consequence felt.

Counterexample

A loud or tearful speech is not effective pathos when its devices remain unrelated to the matter. Conversely, a quiet and precise account may exert powerful affective force.

AT-ARG-W0243 · 定义与示例译稿

省略式论证(enthymeme)Enthymeme

定义
在本条采用的前提补充视角下,一种依赖听众补出未明说前提来支持结论的修辞论证。这不是对enthymeme一切历史用法的完整定义。
例子
这份来源后来被改动过,因此不能不经审查就采用。未明说的前提是:被改动的来源,不会自动保留原先的可靠性。
反例与界限
所有人都会死;苏格拉底是人;所以苏格拉底会死。这里明确说出所有中心前提,是完整三段论;按本条采用的省略式工作解释,这个形式并非省略式论证。

译注:修订稿明确保留本图谱的桥接前提视角,不再让短定义在省略前提与省略结论之间游移。这个局部工作解释,不把亚里士多德及后世的所有enthymeme理论缩成不完整的范畴三段论;没有明说的内容仍须实际承担论证支持作用。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

In the supplementation account selected here, a rhetorical argument whose support depends on an unstated premise supplied by the audience. This does not define every historical use of enthymeme.

Example

“This source was subsequently altered, so it must not be adopted without review.” The unstated premise is that altered sources do not automatically retain their earlier reliability.

Counterexample

“All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore Socrates is mortal” states all central premises. It is a complete syllogism and, in that form, not a rhetorically abbreviated enthymeme.

AT-ADD-20261015-0024 · 定义与示例译稿

直言三段论(categorical syllogism)Syllogism (categorical)

定义
由两个前提构成、通过共同中项联系三个词项,并对其余词项提出结论的论证。
例子
一条虚构博物馆规则说:A室所有物件都允许拍照;所有借展品都在A室。如果这些前提成立,便可推出所有借展品都允许拍照。发现某件受保护展品时,要检查原断言和遗漏限定,而不是据此否定有效的抽象形式。
反例与界限
有效形式不能把没有支持的前提变成事实。通过无效形式得到一个真结论,也不会修好该形式。要问的是:在已说明的假设下,只要前提为真,什么就必须随之成立?

译注:标题明确限制为直言三段论,不把所有演绎都化约为两个前提、三个词项。词项含义、量词与某些模式的存在预设要保持明确;反复出现同一汉字或词语,并不能保证中项意义不变。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A categorical syllogism is a two-premise argument relating three terms through a shared middle term and presenting a conclusion about the remaining terms.

Example

An invented museum rule says all objects in room A may be photographed and all loan exhibits are in room A. The conclusion about photographing all loan exhibits follows if those premises hold. Discovering a protected exhibit calls for checking the claims and any missing qualifications. It does not by itself refute the valid abstract pattern.

Counterexample

A valid pattern cannot turn an unsupported premise into a fact. A true conclusion reached by an invalid pattern does not repair the pattern either. The question is what must follow whenever the specified premises are true, under the stated assumptions.

AT-NAV-G01-019 · 定义与示例译稿

演绎推理(deduction)Deduction

定义
一种推理,其要求是在采用的推理规则下,前提为真就保证结论为真。
例子
架子上每个盒子都是空的。这个盒子在架子上。所以这个盒子是空的。在这些前提下,结论必须成立。
反例与界限
到目前为止打开的盒子都是空的,所以下一个也是空的。这越出了已有前提,没有相同的演绎保证。

译注:不能只用从一般到个别来完整定义演绎;原深层说明也明确如此。形式有效与前提现实为真分别检验。篇章先给总论或先给细节,不足以决定推理是否演绎;现代演绎术语也不自动成为古代墨家每种论辩方式的自称。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Deduction claims a transition in which the truth of the premises guarantees the conclusion under the adopted rules of inference.

Example

“Every box on the shelf is empty. This box is on the shelf. Therefore this box is empty.” The conclusion is forced under these premises.

Counterexample

“The boxes opened so far were empty, so the next one is empty” goes beyond its premises and lacks that deductive guarantee.

AT-CORE-243-001 · 定义与示例译稿

归纳推理(induction)Induction

定义
从个别观察获得较一般规则或预期的推理方式。
例子
原例设定:十二个以不同方式抽取的会话语料库中,某种修复形式主要出现在声音干扰之后;研究者据此提出概率性假说,并在新的语料库中检验。
反例与界限
一班火车晚点,不能确立这条线路的火车一般都会晚点。一个个案可以启发假说,却不能独自承担这一概括。

译注:保留十二个语料库这个示范设定,不宣称本轮实际做过该项研究。样本选择、反例与适用范围决定概括力度;归纳是可修正的支持,不是从细节写到总论就自动成立的写作格式。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A mode of inference that derives a more general rule or expectation from individual observations.

Example

Across twelve diversely sampled conversation corpora, one repair form occurs mainly after acoustic disruption; researchers formulate a probabilistic hypothesis and test it on a new corpus.

Counterexample

One delayed train does not establish that trains on the route are generally late; the case may prompt a hypothesis but cannot support the generalisation by itself.

AT-ARG-W0236 · 定义与示例译稿

溯因推理/解释性假说推理(abduction)Abduction

定义
从已观察到、或令人意外的事实,提出一个可能解释它的假说。
例子
录音中,说话者反复在同一位置停下。研究者假定有互相竞争的句法规划,并据此推导出可测量的延迟,准备在新数据中检验。
反例与界限
从样本中的所有金属受热都膨胀来支持较一般的趋势,是归纳。如果没有待解释的异常和解释性假说,就不是本条意义的溯因。

译注:原深层说明区分皮尔士传统中的可检验猜想生成,与后世某些最佳解释推断的选择口径;这里不默默合并。假说使事实可理解,不因此已经被证明,更不能把肯定后件的无效演绎冒充有效证明。关于这一理论史的原图谱概述保留为待专门复核的背景,不给古代中国材料追认同一现代名称。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

Inference to a plausible explanatory hypothesis from an observed or surprising fact.

Example

Speakers in recordings repeatedly stop at the same point. A researcher hypothesises competing syntactic plans and derives measurable delays to test in new data.

Counterexample

From “All metals in this sample expand when heated,” a general trend is supported inductively. Without an anomaly and explanatory hypothesis, this is not abduction.

AT-CORE-243-008 · 定义与示例译稿

结论(conclusion)Conclusion

定义
从先前前提或考虑中得出的判断,通常也可处于一段论证的收束位置。
例子
已检查的每个样本都具有同一水印序列,新发现的纸叶也具有它。这并不证明真伪,却说明该纸叶通过了目前这一归属检验。
反例与界限
庄重的最后一句,如果得不到前面理由支持,就不是有效推出的结论。反过来,结论也可以在文章中间出现,并成为下一段论证的前提。

译注:原例假定一个当前检验标准,不把同一水印当成充分真伪鉴定。结论作为被支持的命题,与篇章末段或起承转合中的合不是同一分析层面。演绎、归纳和溯因的支持方式不同,也不因此给后两者自动分配某个可量化概率。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A conclusion drawn from preceding premises or considerations and often the closing part of an argument.

Example

Every examined specimen bears the same watermark sequence, and the newly found leaf bears it too. This does not prove authenticity, but it does show that the leaf passes the present attribution test.

Counterexample

A solemn final sentence is not a conclusion if it is unsupported by the preceding reasons. Conversely, a conclusion may occur mid-text and become a premise in the next argument.

AT-CORE-238-061 · 定义与示例译稿

反驳/驳斥(refutation)Refutation

定义
对某项主张或支持它的理由作检验,并使其不能按原方式成立。
例子
所有样本文本都避免直接称呼这一全称主张,被一个归类无误、含有多处直接称呼的文本,在其全称适用范围上反驳。
反例与界限
面对有理由的论点,只回答我不相信。这表达不同意,却未指出错误前提或失败推理,因此还没有反驳任何内容。

译注:反驳理由不一定等于证明相反命题;可能仅显示证据不可靠、推理无效或范围过强。原例针对一个全称断言,不可直接用同样逻辑否定概率性趋势。古代辩论材料作比较时,也不把人身压制当作理由的检验。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

The examination and defeat of a claim or its supporting reasons.

Example

The claim “All texts in the sample avoid direct address” is refuted in its universal scope by one correctly classified text containing several instances of direct address.

Counterexample

A reasoned thesis receives only the reply “I do not believe that.” This expresses disagreement but identifies neither a false premise nor a failed inference and therefore refutes nothing.

AT-NAV-G01-018 · 定义与示例译稿

谬误(fallacy)Fallacy

定义
使所声称支持关系不能成立的推理或论证缺陷。
例子
如果警报被触发,灯就亮。灯亮了,所以警报被触发。但测试电路也可能点亮这盏灯。
反例与界限
灯亮了这个观察本身不是谬误。发现推理中的错误,也不能因此确立警报实际上没有触发。

译注:这里的目标是检验支持关系,不是只给对方贴标签。真结论不能使坏推理变好,坏推理也不自动使结论为假。汉语诡辩常含有意误导的评价,不能不加区分地替代所有fallacy。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

A fallacy is a defect in reasoning or argumentation that undermines a claimed support relation.

Example

“If the alarm is triggered, the lamp lights. The lamp is lit, so the alarm was triggered.” A test circuit could also have lit it.

Counterexample

The observation “The lamp is lit” is not itself a fallacy. Detecting the error does not establish that the alarm was not triggered.

AT-ADD-20261020-0038 · 定义与示例译稿

论证责任(burden of proof and justification)Burden of proof and justification

定义
本条选择日常论证的焦点:参与者有责任依照约定或可辩护的标准,支持自己提出的争议主张。要问谁提出什么、需要怎样的支持,以及责任是否已履行或被转移。法律用法有独立规则。
例子
虚构会议中有人说:新的课间规则使冲突翻倍。被问及计数时,他回答:那就证明并没有翻倍。这没有提供支持。不过,若另一人说完全没有发生冲突,那又是一个需要检验的新主张,不只是要求原说话者提供证据。
反例与界限
分配论证责任不是自动产生真假的机器。没有证成一个命题,不会独自证成其否定。现行法律的推定与裁判规则,不能未经解释就移入日常对话。

译注:此处不直接用司法上的举证责任替代一般论证责任,也不提供任何现行法律规则。要求证据未必意味着断言反面;当证据不足时,暂时不知道可以是共同结论。术语与责任分配仍需情境化的母语专业复核。

对照原文(主要为英文)

Definition

In the everyday argumentative focus selected here, burden of proof is a participant's responsibility to support a disputed claim under an agreed or defensible standard. The inquiry concerns who advances which claim, what support is required and whether that task is met or displaced. Legal uses have separate rules.

Example

Invented meeting: 'The new break rule doubled conflicts.' Asked for counts, the speaker replies, 'Prove that it did not.' That response provides no support. But 'There were no conflicts at all' would be another claim needing examination, not merely a request for the original evidence.

Counterexample

Burden allocation is not a truth machine. Failure to justify a proposition does not by itself establish its negation. Current legal presumptions and decision rules must not be imported into ordinary dialogue without explanation.